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Royal Netherlands East Indies
The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger; KNIL) was the military force maintained by the Netherlands in its colony of the Netherlands East Indies (also known as the Dutch East Indies), in areas that are now part of Indonesia. The KNIL's air arm was the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force. Elements of the Royal Netherlands Navy were also stationed in the Netherlands East Indies.
History 1830–1942
The KNIL was formed by royal decree on 10 March 1830. It was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army, but a separate military arm specifically formed for service in the Netherlands East Indies. Its establishment coincided with the Dutch drive to expand colonial rule from the 17th century area of control to the far larger territories comprising the Dutch East Indies seventy years later.[2]Template:Failed verification
The KNIL was involved in many campaigns against indigenous groups in the area including the Padri War (1821–1845), the Java War (1825–1830), crushing the final resistance of Bali inhabitants to colonial rule in 1849, and the prolonged Aceh War (1873–1904).[3] In 1894, Lombok and Karangasem were annexed in response to reports of the local Balinese aristocracy oppressing the native Sasak people.[4] Bali was finally taken under full control with the Dutch intervention in Bali (1906) and the final Dutch intervention in Bali (1908).[4]
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the KNIL prosecuted the conquest of the Indonesian archipelago. After 1904 the Netherlands East Indies were considered pacified, with no large-scale armed opposition to Dutch rule until World War II, and the KNIL served a mainly defensive role protecting the Dutch East Indies from the possibility of foreign invasion.
Once the archipelago was considered pacified the KNIL was mainly involved with military policing tasks. To ensure a sizeable European military segment in the KNIL and reduce costly recruitment in Europe the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all resident male conscripts in the European legal class in 1917.[5] In 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of Home Guard (Dutch: Landstorm) for European conscripts older than 32.[6]
No large-scale armed threat to Dutch rule existed until World War II.
World War II
Dutch forces in the Netherlands East Indies were severely weakened by the defeat and occupation of the Netherlands itself, by Nazi Germany, in 1940. The KNIL was cut off from external Dutch assistance, except by Royal Netherlands Navy units. The KNIL, hastily and inadequately, attempted to transform into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from foreign invasion. By December 1941, Dutch forces in Indonesia numbered around 85,000 personnel: regular troops comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 enlisted soldiers, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. The remainder were made up of locally organised militia, territorial guard units and civilian auxiliaries. The KNIL air force, Militaire Luchtvaart KNIL (Royal Netherlands East Indies Air Force (ML-KNIL))[7] numbered 389 planes of all types, but was largely outclassed by superior Japanese planes. The Royal Netherlands Navy Air Service, or MLD, also had significant forces in the NEI.[8]
During the Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42 most of the KNIL and other Allied forces were quickly defeated.[9] Most European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males, were interned by the Japanese as POWs. 25% of the POWs did not survive their internment.
A handful of soldiers, mostly indigenous personnel, mounted guerilla campaigns against the Japanese. These were usually unknown to, and unassisted by, the Allies until the end of the war.
During early 1942, some KNIL personnel escaped to Australia. Some indigenous personnel were interned in Australia under suspicion of sympathies with the Japanese. The remainder began a long process of re-grouping. In late 1942, a failed attempt to land in East Timor, to reinforce Australian commandos waging a guerrilla campaign ended with the loss of 60 Dutch personnel.
Four "NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES" squadrons were formed from ML-KNIL personnel, under the auspices of the Royal Australian Air Force, with Australian ground staff. (See: RAAF-NEI squadrons.)
KNIL infantry forces (much like their counterparts in the UK), were augmented by recruitment among Dutch expatriates around the world and by colonial troops from as far away as the Dutch West Indies. During 1944–45 some small units saw action in the New Guinea campaign and Borneo campaign.
Order of battle, 12 December 1941
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KNIL, commanded by LtGen Hein Ter Poorten.
Military Group Bandoeng, overseeing Java, commanded by MajGen J.J. Pesman. The Military Group Bandoeng divided into three military area commands, i.e. 1st, 2nd and 3rd Military Area Command.
1st Military Area Command, overseeing western part of Java, manned by 1st Infantry division, commanded by Maj Gen W. Schilling. Main combat units
- 1st Infantry regiment, based in Weltevreden, commanded by Col Struivenberg, manned by personnel from
- HQ Company
- Motorised Infantry company
- 10th Infantry battalion, based in Weltevreden
- 11th Infantry battalion, based in Meester Cornelis
- 12th Infantry battalion, based in Meester Cornelis, commanded by Capt F.A.M. Harterink.
- 14th Infantry battalion, based in Buitenzorg
- 2nd Infantry regiment, based in Bandoeng, commanded by Col Toorop, manned by personnel from
- Mobile (Armoured) battalion, based in Bandoeng, commanded by Capt G.J. Wulfhorst, manned by
- Reconnaissance platoon, commanded by Lt van Hellenberg Hubar
- Armoured company, commanded by Capt Bakhuis
- 1st Armoured platoon, commanded by Lt Christan
- 2nd Armoured platoon, commanded by Lt Cox
- 3rd Armoured platoon, commanded by SgtMaj Verboeken
- Mechanised infantry company, commanded by Capt Brendgen
- 1st Mechanised infantry platoon, commanded by Lt Rheasa
- 2nd Mechanised infantry platoon, commanded by Lt Reep
- 3rd Mechanised infantry platoon, commanded by WO Kampers
- Motorised Antitank column
- Motorised 2nd battery of 1st Mountain Artillery battalion, commanded by Capt Twiss
- 1st Cavalry regiment, based in Bandoeng, manned by personnel from
- 1st Cavalry squadron, based in Meester Cornelis, commanded by Maj Wessel
- 2nd Cavalry squadron, based in Bandoeng, commanded by Capt Romswinckel
- 5th (Horsed) Cavalry squadron, based in Bandoeng, commanded by Capt Soerjobroto
- 1st Conscript battalion
- 4th Conscript battalion
Detached combat/support units
- Batavia & Tandjong Priok Coast Defence Area
- 3rd Air Defence Artillery battalion, based in Bandoeng
Divisional support units
- 1st Artillery regiment, based in Weltevreden, commanded by Col Koppen, manned by personnel from
- 1st Howitzer Artillery battalion, based in Weltevreden, commanded by Maj Schmidtz
- 2nd Field Artillery battalion, based in Tjimahi, commanded by Lt Col Claassen
- 1st Mountain Artillery battalion, based in Tjimahi, commanded by Capt Hanssen
- Depot Mobile Artillery, in Tjimahi, commanded by Col P.C. Hoolboom
- Coastal Artillery unit, based in Merak, Bantam and Pelaboean Ratoe
- 1st Engineer battalion, based in Weltevreden
- Technical battalion, based in Tjimahi
- Pioneer battalion, based in Tjimahi
- 1st Constabulary battalion, based in Weltevreden
- 1st Transport company
- 2nd Transport company
- 1st (Military Academy) Infantry battalion, based in Bandoeng
- Military hospital Weltevreden
- Military hospital Tjimahi
Army Aviation units
- 1st Air Reconnaissance squadron, based in Soekaboemi, commanded by Lt J.W. Verhoven
- 3rd Air Reconnaissance squadron, based in Soebang, commanded by Lt D. Berlijn
2nd Military Area Command, overseeing central part of Java, manned by 2nd Infantry division, commanded by MG P.A. Cox. Main combat units
- 4th Infantry regiment, based in Magelang, commanded by Col de Veer, manned by personnel from
- 3rd Conscript battalion
- 5th Conscript battalion
- 6th Conscript battalion
Detached combat/support units
- South Group, based in Soerakarta, commanded by Col Scholten
- Legion Mangkoe Negoro (battalion), based in Soerakarta
- 21st Infantry battalion, based in Soerakarta
- Legion Pakoe Alam (company), based in Jogjakarta
- 4th Cavalry squadron, based in Magelang, commanded by Capt de Boer
- Life Guards Cavalry squadron, based in Jogjakarta and Soerakarta, commanded by Capt Lips
- Mountain artillery battery, commanded by Capt van Praag
- Tjilatjap Brigade, based in Tjilatjap
- 5th company, 9th Infantry battalion
- Volunteer company
- National Reserve company
- City Watchmen company
- 6th Coastal and Air Defence Artillery battalion, based in Tjilatjap
- 5th Coastal and Air Defence Artillery battalion, based in Semarang, commanded by Capt van Dilst
- Coastal and Air Defence Artillery detachment, based in Cheribon
- Coastal and Air Defence Artillery detachment, based in Tegal
- Coastal and Air Defence Artillery detachment, based in Pekalongan
- Coastal and Air Defence Artillery detachment, based in Semarang
Divisional support units
- 2nd Mountain Artillery battalion, based in Salatiga, commanded by Lt Col Reerink
- Signal company
- 4th Transport company
- 2nd (Military Academy) Infantry battalion, based in Poerworedjo
- 3rd (Military Academy) Infantry battalion, based in Gombong
- (Military Academy) Cavalry battalion, based in Salatiga, commanded by Lt Col Fokkema
- Military hospital Magelang
Army Aviation units
- 2nd Air Reconnaissance squadron, based in Jogjakarta, commanded by Capt W.A. Meelhuijsen
- 4th Air Reconnaissance squadron, based in Semarang, commanded by Lt A.L. Cox
3rd Military Area Command, overseeing eastern part of Java, manned by 3rd Infantry division, commanded by MG G.A. Ilgen. Main combat units
- 6th Infantry regiment, based in Malang, manned by personnel from
- 3rd Cavalry squadron, based in Malang, commanded by Capt de Longh
- 6th Cavalry squadron, based in Malang
- ? Conscript battalion
- ? Conscript battalion
Detached combat/support units
- Soerabaja Defence Zone
- Barisan Korps Madoera (regiment), based in Soerabaja
- 1st (Barisan Korps) infantry battalion
- 2nd (Barisan Korps) infantry battalion
- 3rd (Barisan Korps) infantry battalion
- 4th (Barisan Korps) infantry battalion
- (Barisan Korps) Artillery battery
- 2nd Air Defence Artillery battalion
- Coastal Artillery battalion, based in Soerabaja, commanded by Maj von de Eem
- 2nd Conscript battalion
- Marine infantry battalion
- 2nd Constabulary battalion, based in Soerabaja
- Radar company
- Barisan Korps Madoera (regiment), based in Soerabaja
- Bali Detachment, commanded by LtCol W.P. Roodenburg
- Korps Prajoeda (battalion), based in Bali
- Coastal Artillery team
Divisional support units
- 2nd Artillery regiment, based in Malang, commanded by Col van Dijk, manned by personnel from
- 1st Field Artillery battalion, based in Malang, commanded by Maj Stenger
- 2nd company, 2nd Constabulary battalion, based in Malang
- 3rd Transport company
- Military hospital Malang
Army Aviation unit
- 5th Air Reconnaissance squadron, based in Malang
Sumatra High Command, overseeing the island of Sumatra, commanded by MajGen R.T. Overakker. The Sumatra High Command divided into four territorial commands, i.e. North Sumatra, West Sumatra, Riouw and South Sumatra.
North Sumatra Territorial Command, overseeing northern part of Sumatra, commanded by Col G.F.V. Gosenson. Territorial units
- North Sumatra 1st Garrison battalion, based in Koetaradja
- North Sumatra 2nd Garrison battalion, based in Koetaradja
- Constabulary battalion, based in Koetaradja
- Composite battalion, based in Medan
- City Watchmen company, based in Medan
- Composite detachment, based in Sabang
Support units
- Coastal Artillery detachment, based in Medan
- Coastal Artillery units, based in Belawan and Deli
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
West Sumatra & Tapanoeli Territorial Command, overseeing western part of Sumatra, commanded by Lt Col J.H.M. Blogg. Territorial units
- West Sumatra 1st Garrison battalion, based in Padang
- City Watchmen company, based in Padang
- City Watchmen company, based in Padang
- West Sumatra 2nd Garrison battalion, based in Fort de Kock
- 2 companies of West Sumatra 2nd Garrison battalion, based in Padangpandjang
Support units
- Coastal Artillery battery, based in Emmahaven
- Air Defence Artillery battery, based in Pakanbaroe
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Riouw Territorial Command, overseeing eastern part of Sumatra, commanded by Maj J.H. de Vries. Territorial units
- Riouw Garrison battalion, based in Tandjoengpinang
- Conscript company, based in Tandjoengoeban
- Conscript company, based in Poelo Samboe
Support unit
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
South Sumatra Territorial Command, overseeing southern part of Sumatra, commanded by Lt Col L.W.N. Vogelsang. Territorial units
- South Sumatra Garrison battalion, based in Palembang
- City Watchmen company, based in Palembang
- Infantry company, based in Djambi
- Composite company, based in Djambi
Support units
- Coastal Artillery battery, based in Palembang
- Air Defence Artillery battery, based in Palembang
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
West Borneo Territorial Command, overseeing western part of Borneo, commanded by Lt Col D.P.F. Mars. Territorial units
- West Borneo Garrison battalion, based in Pontianak
- City Watchmen company, based in Pontianak
- City Watchmen platoon, based in Singkawang
- City Watchmen platoon, based in Sintang
Support units
- Air Defence Artillery battery, based in Singkawang
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
South and East Borneo Territorial Command, overseeing southern and eastern part of Borneo, commanded by Lt Col H.T. Halkema. Territorial units
- South and East Borneo Garrison battalion, based in Bandjermasin
- City Watchmen company, based in Bandjermasin
- Militia column, based in Bandjermasin
- City Watchmen platoon, based in Amoentai
- City Watchmen platoon, based in Barabai
- City Watchmen platoon, based in Kandangan
Support units
- Air Defence Artillery section, based in Bandjermasin
- Air Defence Artillery section, based in Koetawaringin Air
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Balikpapan Local Command, overseeing the city of Balikpapan, commanded by Lt Col C. van den Hoogenband. Local unit
- 6th Infantry battalion, based in Balikpapan,
Support units
- 2nd Coastal and Air Defence Artillery battalion, based in Balikpapan, commanded by Capt Fergusen
- Engineer company, based in Balikpapan
- Engineer squad, based in Sambodja
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Tarakan Local Command, overseeing the city of Tarakan, commanded by Lt Col S. de Waal. Local unit
- 7th Infantry battalion, based in Tarakan
Support units
- 3rd Coastal and Air Defence Artillery battalion, based in Tarakan, commanded by Capt Bakker
- Engineer platoon
- Engineer platoon
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Samarinda Local Command, overseeing the city of Samarinda, commanded by Capt G.A.C. Monteiro. Local units
Support units
- Coastal and Air Defence Artillery battery, based in Sanga-sanga
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Samarinda II Air Base Local Command, overseeing Samarinda II Air Base, commanded by Maj G. du Rij van Beest Holle. Local unit
- Militia company, based in Samarinda II Air Base
Support units
- Air Defence Artillery battery, based in Samarinda II Air Base
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Celebes Territorial Command, overseeing the island of Celebes, commanded by Col M. Vooren. The Celebes Territorial Command divided into three local commands, i.e. Manado, Kendari and Makassar.
Manado Local Command, overseeing the northern part of Celebes, commanded by Maj B.F.A. Schilmöller. Local units
- National Reserve battalion, based in Manado, commanded by Capt W.C. van den Berg.
- A Company commanded by 1Lt A.O. Radema
- B Company commanded by 1Lt W.G. van de Laar
- C Company commanded by 1Lt H. Fucher
- D Company commanded by 1Lt J.G. Wielinga
- E Company commanded by Sgt Maliëzer
- Infantry company, based in Manado, commanded by Capt W.F.J. Kroon.
- Volunteer company, commanded by Capt J.D.W.T. Abbink.
- Conscript company, commanded by Lt F. Masselink.
- Militia company, commanded by Capt J.H.A.L.C. de Swert.
- City Watchmen company, commanded by Lt M.A. Nolthenius de Man.
- Mobile column, commanded by SgtMaj A.J. ter Voert.
Support units
- National Reserve depot in Manado
- Coastal and Air Defence Artillery battery, based in Manado
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Kendari II Airbase Garrison, overseeing Kendari II Airbase, commanded by Capt F.B. van Straalen. Local units
- Infantry company, commanded by Capt E.G.T. Anthonio.
- Infantry company
Support units
- Air Defence Artillery detachment
- Air Defence Artillery detachment
Makassar Local Command, overseeing the southern part of Celebes, commanded by Col M. Vooren Local units
- Infantry company
- Infantry platoon
- Constabulary platoon
- Volunteer company
- National Reserve company
- Conscript company
- City Watchmen company
- Mobile column
- Militia company
Support units
- Militia depot in Makassar
- Coastal Artillery detachment, based in Makassar
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Timor Territorial Command, overseeing Lesser Sunda Islands, commanded by LtCol W.E.C. Detiger. Territorial units
- Timor Garrison battalion, based in Koepang, commanded by LtCol N.L.W. van Straten.
- 3rd company, 8th Infantry battalion, based in Atamboea, commanded by Capt C.L.E.F. van Swieten
- Machine gun platoon, based in Koepang
Support unit
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Moluccas Territorial Command, overseeing Moluccas Islands, commanded by Lt Col J.L.R. Kapitz. Territorial units
- Moluccas Garrison battalion, based in Amboina, commanded by Maj H. H. L. Tieland.
- 4th company, Moluccas Garrison battalion, commanded by Capt Jan Kaseger.
- Militia battalion, commanded by Lt Didi Kartasasmita.
- City Watchmen company, based in Amboina
- City Watchmen company, based in Laha
- National Reserve company, based in Amboina
- National Reserve company, based in Saparoea
Support units
- 4th Coastal and Air Defence Artillery battalion, based in Amboina, commanded by Maj Buur.
- Engineer platoon
- Mobile Auxiliary First-Aid detachment
Military Aviation of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army, based in Soerabaja, commanded by Lt Gen L.H. van Oyen, acting commander Col E.T. Kengen.
- 1st group, based in Bandoeng
- 1st squadron of 1st group, based in Samarinda, commanded by Capt W.F.H. van Rantwijk
- 2nd squadron of 1st group, based in Singkawang, commanded by Capt R. De Seneport Domis
- 2nd group, based in Malang
- 3rd group, based in Meester Cornelis, commanded by Lt Col W.J. van Gulik
- 4th group, based in Madioen
- 1st squadron of 4th group, based in Meester Cornelis, commanded by Lt M.W. van der Poel
- 2nd squadron of 4th group, based in Bandoeng, commanded by Lt R.A.D. Anemaet
- 4th flight of 2nd squadron of 4th group, based in Amboina, commanded by Lt F.E. Broers
- 3rd squadron of 4th group, based in Madioen
- 5th group, based in Buitenzorg
- 1st squadron of 5th group, based in Singkawang, commanded by Lt A.A.M. van Rest
- 2nd squadron of 5th group, based in Singapore, commanded by Capt J.P. van Helsdingen
- 3rd squadron of 5th group, based in Singapore
- 6th (Depot) group, based in Madioen
- 1st squadron of 6th group, based in Bandoeng, commanded by Capt S. de Mul
1945–1950
Following World War II, the KNIL was used in two large military campaigns in 1947 and 1948 to re-establish Dutch control of Indonesia. The KNIL and its Ambonese auxiliaries have been accused of committing war crimes during this "police action". Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and Netherlands recognition of Indonesian sovereignty came on 27 December 1949.[10] On 26 January 1950, elements of the KNIL were involved in an abortive coup in Bandung planned by Raymond Westerling and Sultan Hamid II. The coup failed and only accelerated the dissolution of the federal Republic of the United States of Indonesia.[11]
The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military.[12] However, efforts to integrate former KNIL units were impeded by mutual distrust between the predominantly Ambonese KNIL troops and the Javanese-dominated Republican military; leading to clashes at Makassar in April and the attempted secession of an independent Republic of South Maluku (RMS) in July.[11] These revolts were suppressed by November 1950 and approximately 12,500 Ambonese KNIL personnel and their families opted for temporary resettlement in the Netherlands.[13] Following this, the KNIL ceased to exist but its traditions are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army.[14]
Recruiting
During the 19th century the KNIL recruited Dutch volunteers and foreign mercenaries of several nationalities.[15] During the protracted Aceh War the numbers of European troops were kept to 12,000 but continued Achenese resistance necessitated the deployment of up to 23,000 indigenous soldiers (mainly from Java, Ambon, and Manado).[16] Even slaves of the Ashanti (Ivory Coast and Ghana) were recruited in limited numbers for service in the East Indies (see Belanda Hitam).[17] The ratio of foreign and indigenous troops to those of Dutch origin was reported to be 60% to 40%. After the Aceh War, the enlistment of non-Dutch European troops ceased and the KNIL came to consist of Dutch regulars recruited in the Netherlands itself, Indonesians, Indos (Eurasians), and Dutch colonists living in the East Indies and undertaking their military service.
In 1884 personnel strength was numbered at 13,492 European, 14,982 Indonesian, 96 African, and at least 1,666 Eurasian recruits. The officer corps was wholly European and was probably close to 1,300. There were also about 1,300 horses.[18] Recruitment was carried out in Holland and India, with over 1,000 Dutch subjects and 500 other nationalities enlisting annually. The foreign troops consisted of Flemish, German, Swiss, and French volunteers. Walloons, Arabs, and nationals of both the United Kingdom and United States were forbidden from serving. Other foreigners who could not prove fluency in either Dutch or German were also not accepted for service.[18]
It was against the law to send Dutch conscripts from the Netherlands to the East Indies but Dutch volunteers continued to enlist for colonial service in the KNIL. In 1890 a Colonial Reserve (Koloniale Reserve) was established in the Netherlands itself to recruit and train these volunteers and to re-integrate them into Dutch society upon the conclusion of their overseas service. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. The largest proportion of these "native troops" had always consisted of Javanese and Sundanese soldiers.[19][20] During the Japanese occupation, most of the Dutch and Ambonese personnel were interned in POW camps.
During the Indonesian National Revolution, the KNIL's officers were still largely Dutch and Eurasians although most of its troops were recruited from predominantly Christian eastern Indonesia, particularly the South Moluccas, Timor and Manado. Although there were smaller numbers of Javanese, Sundanese, Sumatran and other Muslim troops in Dutch service, these received comparatively lower rates of pay than their Christian counterparts, leading to resentment and distrust. The Dutch sought to take advantage of these ethnic tensions by claiming that the Ambonese would lose their special privileges and pensions under a Javanese-dominated government.[11] As noted above, these factors contributed to clashes between demobilised KNIL units and the Republic of Indonesia's military throughout 1950.[11]
-
The Vickers light amphibious tank was used by Dutch forces in the East Indies.
Notes
- ↑ http://www.googleartproject.com/en-gb/collection/the-kroller-muller-museum/artwork/transport-of-colonial-soldiers-isaac-israels/440388/details/
- ↑ The Royal Netherlands Indies Army
- ↑ Ibrahim, Alfian. "Aceh and the Perang Sabil." Indonesian Heritage: Early Modern History. Vol. 3, ed. Anthony Reid, Sian Jay and T. Durairajoo. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2001. p132–133
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Vickers, Adrian. (2005) A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p10–11
- ↑ Willems, Wim ‘Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600–1942).’ (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.32-33 ISBN 90-71042-44-8
- ↑ Willems, Wim ‘Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600–1942).’ (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.32-36 ISBN 90-71042-44-8
- ↑ Broshot, James (1999–2000). "Dutch Air Force Order of Battle in the Dutch East Indies, 30 November 1941". Dutch East Indies Campaign website. http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/Dutch_OOB.html.
- ↑ "Armed Forces of World War II" Andrew Mollo ISBN 0-85613-296-9
- ↑ Klemen, L (1999–2000). "Dutch East Indies 1941–1942". Dutch East Indies Campaign website. http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html.
- ↑ "Last Post – the End of Empire in the Far East", John Keay ISBN 0-7195-5589-2
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Kahin, George McT. Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1952. p452
- ↑ plechtigheden in Djakarta bij de opheffing van het KNIL Polygoon 1950 3 min. 20;embed=1 Video footage showing the official ceremony disbanding the KNIL
- ↑ The complicated story of the disbanding of the KNIL is set out briefly here. For a more extended analysis see Manuhutu (1987); Steylen (1996: 33–63); van Amersfoort (1982: 101–8). The psychological impact of the dissolution of the KNIL on the Ambonese servicemen is described in Wittermans (1991).
- ↑ John Keegan, page 314 "World Armies", ISBN 0-333-17236-1
- ↑ Blakely, Allison (2001). Blacks in the Dutch World: The Evolution of Racial Imagery in a Modern Society. Indiana University Press. p. 15 ISBN 0-253-31191-8
- ↑ Vickers (2005), p. 13
- ↑ Radio Netherlands Worldwide – Ghana's Java connection
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 The Armed Strength of the Netherlands and Their Colonies. Trotter, JK. The British War Office Intelligence Division 1887. ISBN 9781104382513. p 162-167.
- ↑ Javanese have always been the largest indigenous element of the colonial army. Cribb, R.B. (2004) ‘Historical dictionary of Indonesia.’ Scarecrow Press, Lanham, USA.ISBN 0 8108 4935 6, p. 221 [1]
- ↑ The KNIL statistics of 1939 show at least 13,500 Javanese and Sundanese under arms compared to 4,000 Ambonese soldiers.Source: Netherlands Ministry of Defense.
References
- Bosma, Ulbe: Emigration: Colonial circuits between Europe and Asia in the 19th and early 20th century, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 23 May 2011.
- Hoofdkwartier Militaire Luchtvaart – Overzicht 1947 (5 pc), Flash Aviation, 2005.
External links
- Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) 1819–1950
- Global Security – Royal Dutch Indian Army
- Netherlands Institute for War Documentation: East Indies Camp Archives
- Womack, Tom. "An Abandoned Army: The KNIL and The Japanese Invasion of Northern Dutch Sumatra". The Netherlands East Indies 1941–1942. http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/north_sumatra.html.
- Pages with broken file links
- Pages using ISBN magic links
- Military units and formations established in 1830
- Military history of Indonesia
- Disbanded armies
- Royal Netherlands Army
- Dutch East Indies
- Dutch conquest of Indonesia
- Military units and formations of the Cold War
- Military units and formations disestablished in 1950
- 1830 establishments in the Dutch East Indies