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Piquet

2012-04-02T14:31:26Z

Peter jackson: Created page with " '''Piquet''' is a card game for two players. It originated in France around 1500, and in English the name can be pronounced either French fashion (peekay) or E..."

'''Piquet''' is a [[Card game|card game]] for two players. It originated in [[France]] around 1500, and in English the name can be pronounced either French fashion (peekay) or English fashion (picket). It is generally regarded by British and French connoisseurs as the best card game for two players, but is virtually unknown in America.

After the [[deal]], a [[hand]] falls into three phases:

#players discard some cards and draw replacements; this is the main skill in the game
#players declare and score for various combinations of cards in their hands
#players play their cards in tricks and score for those

The original form of the game, ''[[Piquet#Piquet au cent|piquet au cent]]'', is now obsolete, having been displaced in the late nineteenth century by the present game, technically known as rubicon piquet. In this, a ''partie'' (game) normally consists of six deals or hands. It usually lasts about half an hour. If the loser at the end of this has under a hundred points they are penalized for failing to cross the ''[[rubicon]]''.

There is an "official" code of rules issued by the Portland Club in 1882, which is described here. However, in practice there are numerous variations, with almost every book about card games giving slightly different rules. Some variations are mentioned here.

==The pack==
Piquet is played with a 32-card pack, consisting of the cards ace, king, queen, jack (or knave), ten, nine, eight and seven in each of four [[suit (cards)|suits]]: [[spades (cards)|spades]], [[hearts (cards)|hearts]], [[diamonds (cards)|diamonds]] and [[clubs (cards)|clubs]]. The rank of cards in each suit is as listed here, ace highest. There is no rank among suits.

Originally popularised by piquet, the same pack is still used very widely for various other card games such as [[skat]] and most games of the [[Jass–Belote card games|jass–belote family]] of games. It is interesting to note that Swiss jass is played with a pack of 36 cards (including the six in each suit), and that this corresponds to the earliest descriptions of the piquet pack.

==The deal==
At the start of the partie each player cuts the pack. The player cutting the higher card has choice of whether to deal first. It is recommended that they should choose to deal first. If the players cut equal cards the process is repeated. The players deal hands alternately. The dealer is known as younger hand, the other player as elder hand. The pack is shuffled and cut before each deal. The dealer deals the cards either two or three at a time, face down, to the players alternately, starting with elder hand, until each player has twelve cards. Each player has the option of dealing by either twos or threes, but must then maintain that choice throughout the partie. The choice is not binding on the other player. (These are the Portland Club rules (Law 9); there are a number of variants here.) The remaining eight cards, known as the ''[[talon]]'', are left face down. Once the deal has been completed the players pick up and examine their cards, without showing them to the opponent.

If either player notices they have a hand with no court cards (king, queen or jack), they must announce ''carte blanche'' for a score of 10 [[points]]. A special procedure is followed in this rare case, for which see below.

==Discards==
Elder hand now selects cards to discard. They must discard at least one, and may discard as many as five. The discards are placed face down, where elder, but not younger, may consult them at any subsequent time during the deal. It is recommended that elder should nearly always discard five. Having discarded, elder then draws an equal number of cards from the top of the talon, not showing them to the opponent, but adding them to their own hand. If elder discards fewer than five, they may examine the remaining cards they might have drawn.

It is then younger's turn to discard, up to the number remaining in the talon, usually three, again replacing them with the same number from the top of the talon. The Portland Club rules say younger must discard at least one card (Law 22), but many books say this is optional. It is recommended that younger should usually discard the maximum, but exceptions will be commoner than for elder. As before, younger's discards may be examined at any time by younger, but not at all by elder. The rule for any remaining cards in the talon is different, however. Either both players or neither may see them, at younger hand's choice. This choice must be made after elder has led to the first trick, or announced the suit to be led.

==Declarations==
After the players have discarded and taken replacement cards, they then declare various scoring combinations in their hands. Declaration is not compulsory, except for carte blanche as noted above, and players may declare less than they hold. This practice is known as ''sinking''. According to the Portland Club rules (Law 55), either player has the right to see any cards the opponent has scored for or equalized (see below) immediately and/or at any subsequent time in the deal (except for carte blanche, which is governed by special rules detailed below, and subject to the qualification for younger hand's equalizing holdings mentioned below). This rule is omitted from many books. It implies that a player declaring less than they actually hold must nevertheless declare cards they actually hold, not others of lesser scoring value. This rule is not just about checking the honesty and accuracy of one's opponent. It also specifies information one is entitled to about opponent's cards. One may simply ask for the information rather than a physical look at the cards. the price for scoring combinations is telling the opponent some of one's cards.

There are three categories of declarations: point, sequence and set. Elder hand declares first, starting with point. The Portland Club rules allow the last two to be reversed (Law 47), but many books specify that sequences must be declared before sets.

===Point===
The ''point'' is simply the largest number of cards in one suit in a hand. Elder announces, for example, "point of four". Younger may then

#say "good", allowing elder to score for the point
#say "not good", holding a longer suit; younger does not yet give details
#ask "how many?" or "making?" or some equivalent question; this means younger has a suit of the same length; in this case elder counts the total for the suit at 11 for ace, 10 for court cards, and the other cards at their numerical value; younger will then say "good", "not good" or "equal" as appropriate

(Of course, if elder announces point of eight, younger can only say "good" or "equal".)

The winner of the point simply scores one point for each card in the suit. If the two players have equal suits in both length and numerical value then neither player scores for point.

It is customary for each player to keep count of their cumulative score on each hand out loud. Thus, if elder wins the point, they will announce, say, "four". Scores are written down at the end of each hand.

===Sequences===
A sequence consists of at least three consecutive cards in the same suit. Sequences of 3-8 cards are called ''tierce'', ''quart'', ''quint'', ''sixième'', ''septième'' and ''huitième'', respectively. The scores for tierce and quart are simply the length. For longer sequences 10 extra points are added. Thus the scores are 3, 4, 15, 16, 17 and 18, respectively. A longer sequence outranks a shorter one. Between sequences of equal length a higher one outranks a lower one.

Elder announces their best sequence, if any, specifying its length and how high it is: "tierce to the king" or whatever it may be. The terms "tierce major" and so on mean "to the ace". At the other extreme, "minor" means the lowest cards in a suit. (It is of course unnecessary to specify how high a huitième is.) Younger responds "good", "not good" or "equal", similarly to the case of point above. Only one player can score for sequence, just as for point. There is an important difference, however. Whereas only one point can be scored in a hand, the player declaring the best sequence can also score for any other equal or inferior sequences they may hold.

===Sets===
This term refers to three or four honour cards (ace, king, queen, jack, ten) of the same rank. Sets score 3 and 14 respectively, and are therefore known as ''trios'' and ''quatorzes''. A quatorze outranks a trio, and higher outranks lower for the same length.

Elder hand announces their best set, if any, specifying number and how high, as with sequences. It is traditional to talk of, say, "fourteen aces", referring to the scoring value. Younger responds "good" or "not good", equality being impossible in this case. The winner can also score any other inferior sets, as in the case of sequences.

===The end of the declarations===
Elder hand, having finished declaring, leads a card or announces the suit to be led. Younger then announces any winning declarations. If anything has been declared equal, elder is only entitled to see younger's equalizing cards at this point, while younger was entitled to see elder's when the equality was announced.

==Play==

The player on lead leads any card from those remaining in their hand. The other player must then play a card of the same suit if they still have one in their hand. Otherwise they may play any card. The card led wins the trick unless the opponent plays a higher card of the same suit. The winner of a trick leads to the next. According to the Portland Club rules, players are entitled to examine the cards in past tricks (Law 60). This rule is omitted from many books.

The scoring for tricks is described in the Portland Club rules as 1 point for every card one leads, or with which one wins a trick, but counting 2 for the last trick instead of 1. It is left to the reader to understand that "or" is intended inclusively, so that a card that one leads and that also wins the trick scores only 1, not 2 (except for the last trick). Most books explain this in a perhaps clearer way:

*1 point for leading
*1 point for winning a trick to which the opponent led
*1 extra point for winning the last trick, whoever led to it

After play is concluded, a player who has won the majority of the tricks scores an additional 10 points for "the cards". However, if one player wins all the tricks, they score 40 points for ''capot'' instead (see below). If each player wins six tricks there is no such score.

==Special scores==

Four scores are called "special" in the sense that they are fairly infrequent. Three of them are also the largest scores in the game.

===Carte blanche===

Carte blanche has already been mentioned. A player dealt a hand with no court cards scores 10 points. The procedure here differs from other declarations. Opponent is still entitled to see the cards sufficiently to verify that the claim is correct, but has no right to full information about the hand. The procedure is simpler when younger hand has carte blanche. This must be declared as soon as noticed, but younger then waits for elder to discard before counting the cards quickly face up on the playing surface. A quick glimpse is sufficient for opponent to distinguish court cards from others.

The procedure is more complicated if elder has carte blanche. In this case, elder, having announced carte blanche, then announces how many cards they intend to discard, but does not actually discard them yet. Younger then discards up to the number remaining as detailed above, but does not yet draw replacements. Elder then counts the cards as before, then discards the number specified and draws replacements, and younger finally draws replacements. Thus younger verifies elder's carte blanche, each player gets the replacement cards they were entitled to, and no additional information is acquired beyond the minimum necessary.

(As there are 12 court cards and only 8 cards left in the talon, it is obviously impossible for both players to have carte blanche on the same hand.)

===Pique and repique===

''Pique'' and ''repique'' are similar to each other. A player who scores 30 points in declarations before opponent scores anything adds 60 points for repique. If elder hand scores 30 points in declarations and play before younger scores anything, they score an extra 30 points for pique. (As elder hand scores 1 point for leading at the very start of play, it is impossible for younger hand to score pique.) In this context "before" does not have a strict chronological meaning. Instead, scores count strictly in the following order:

#carte blanche
#point
#sequences
#sets
#play

It is traditional to jump in scoring, e.g. from 28 to 91, rather than go through 31 and add repique separately (and similarly for pique).

===Capot===

As noted above, a player who wins all the tricks scores 40 for capot instead of 10 for the cards. This bonus is regarded as being scored after the play has closed, not during the last trick, so that capot cannot count towards pique.

==The partie and the rubicon==

A partie normally consists of six deals. However, if the scores are tied after six, another two are played. If the tie is repeated then, it stands as the final result.

Normally, the difference between the players' scores is calculated and a bonus of 100 points added for winning. The result is the margin of victory, and the basis for payment of bets if relevant. However, if the loser has under 100 points (the rubicon) in total from the six (or eight) hands, the scores are added instead of subtracted, again with the 100 point bonus. This applies even if the winner is also below 100. Thus, if in the last hand it is clear one has little chance of reaching 100, while the opponent has done or probably will win, then one should try to minimize the total score, for example by equalizing declarations and taking exactly six tricks.

A note to the Portland Club code of laws says that, by agreement, players may play a partie of only four deals, with the first and last counting double.

==Piquet au cent==

The original form of the game differed in having no fixed number of deals. Instead, as many deals were played as required for one player to reach a total of 100. Another difference was that the scores for leading to a trick and for winning a trick from the opponent's lead applied only if the card concerned was an honour. (It was thus theoretically possible for younger hand to score pique.) The extra point for the last trick was not subject to this restriction.

Card game

2012-04-02T14:30:01Z

Mendelo: +link nl:Kaartspel

An enormous number of '''card games''' have been invented over the centuries. Only a few major games and families of games can be mentioned here. Different card games are available for any reasonable number of players.

==Packs of cards==

The standard Anglo-American (bridge) pack of cards consists of 52 cards. Most actual packs sold include 1 or more often 2 extra cards called jokers, which are used in some games, but in most are not used in the formal structure of the game, being simply available in practice to replace lost or damaged cards. The cards are in 4 ''suits'', which in English are known as spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs (symbolized by ♠, ♥, ♦, ♣ on Anglo-American and French cards). In Anglo-American and French cards spades and clubs are black, hearts and diamonds are red. Each suit comprises 13 cards. These consist of 3 ''court'' cards, known in English as king, queen and jack or knave, and 10 numbered cards from 1 to 10, though the card numbered 1 is labelled A and called the ace. In most games it is not treated as a numbered card at all.

Continental European packs have a variety of names for suits and ranks, but they also usually have fewer cards. French and German packs usually have 32 cards, omitting all numbers from 2 to 6 for French cards, or 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 for German ones (the distinction is unimportant, as the 2 in German packs is treated like the ace in others). Swiss packs are similar to German ones, but with the addition of 6s, for a total of 36 cards. Spanish and Italian packs have 40 cards, omitting 8 to 10.

There are also a variety of more specialized packs used for particular games.

The cards in a pack have identical backs, enabling a game to distinguish between cards a player is entitled to know the identity of and those they are not.

Some games involve two or more packs shuffled together.

==Introduction of cards to Europe==

Playing cards are first recorded in Europe in the 1360s. They arrived from Egypt, where a 52-card pack equivalent to that described above was already in use. They spread widely over the next few decades. The earliest description of a pack dates from 1377, and is of a 52-card pack equivalent to that described above.

==According to Hoyle?==

In the 18th century, Edmond Hoyle wrote treatises on four card games (whist, piquet, quadrille and brag) and two other games (backgammon and chess), which he later reissued as a compendium. These treatises consisted of advice on playing the games, not descriptions of the rules, but over time it became a widespread practice to call a collection of descriptions of rules of card games, and sometimes others, by the name of Hoyle, which was not restricted by copyright. There is a widespread belief that whatever particular Hoyle one is familiar with gives the "official" rules of games, and many such books in fact make such claims, though their rules often differ. In fact most games have no "official" rules, and are subject to numerous variations between different playing circles.

==Mechanics==

The turn to play can be either clockwise or anticlockwise, depending on the nationality of the game. Normally, the cards are shuffled before each deal, with every player entitled to shuffle, but the dealer last. The pack is then cut, usually by the player before dealer. Dealer deals the cards, or some of them, singly or in batches, as specified by the rules of a particular game. Dealing normally follows the order of turn to play, with dealer last.

==Classifications of games==

Classification is complicated by the fact that many games combine elements from different types. The mechanism of play can be classified as follows:

#pure gambling games in which there is no actual play of the cards at all, merely betting on them
#games involving removing cards from one's hand and replacing them
##from other players' hands
##from a spare hand
##from the main pack
#games involving playing one's cards into various forms of combinations on the playing surface
#games involving the play of tricks

Scoring objectives may be classified as follows:

#holding the best cards in a gambling game (or bluffing the other players that one has, in poker)
#avoiding holding or taking certain cards
#getting rid of one's cards
#forming various combinations of cards
#capturing cards, particularly in tricks

Most Western card games involve trick taking. Its importance varies. In many games it is the sole object. At the other extreme, some games give it a comparatively minor role. Many games balance it with combinations.

Usually, the player to lead to a trick may play any card remaining in their hand. Each player in turn plays one card, usually subject to restrictions on choice, and the trick is won by the highest card of the suit led, unless a card of a suit designated as ''trumps'' is played, in which case the highest trump wins. (Whether there is such a suit depends on the game, and sometimes varies withi a game. The cards in the trick are now out of play and the winner leads to the next trick.

The rules about following to a trick vary:

#some games allow one to play any card
#in the All Fours family of games, one may freely either ''follow suit'' (play a card of the suit led) or trump, but may only play a third suit when having no remaining cards in the suit led
#most Western games require following suit if possible, but allow a free choice if one has none remaining in that suit
#in some games, one must follow suit if possible, otherwise trump if possible
#in some games, the rule in 4 is supplemented by a rule requiring one to play a higher card of the suit led, or trumps, or both, depending on the game, than any so far played to the trick

Trick taking games can be classified by the objective in taking tricks, i.e. the scoring system:

#simply counting the number of tricks
#scoring for various cards taken in tricks
#avoiding either of the above (negative scoring)

==Gambling games==

These include:

#pontoon/blackjack/21: in which the object is to get cards totalling as near 21 as possible without exceeding it; one starts with 2, & can ask for more, at the risk of going over; originated in France in the middle of the 18th century
#poker, originating in early 19th century America: players can raise the stakes in the hope that others drop out; if not, there are rules determing the best 5-card hand; there are numerous variants in these rules and other procedures; the usual practice in the USA is for dealer to announce the rules for that deal

==Cribbage==

This game, also known simply as crib, originated in England in the 17th century, and remains popular there. It involves the players alternately playing from their hands to the table and keeping a running total of the cards played. It is one of the few games where the ace still counts as 1. Points are scored for reaching a total of 15 or 31, or being the last able to play without going over 31. Players also score for combinations in their hands, and dealer scores also for the crib, cards discarded by both players before the start of play.

==The cassino family==

The original Italian spelling is casino, but cassino is commoner in English. Scopa/scopone/escoba are variants of this family. These games involve playing cards onto the table. In certain circumstances one captures some or all of the cards on the table, and scors for them.

==The rummy family==

This includes a wide variety of games, including

#simple family types of rummy
#gin rummy, usually played for money
#canasta, a more intellectually sophisticated game

The general practice is for players to take turns drawing a card from the pack, usually without seeing it beforehand, and then discarding a card. Scores can be made for combinations, for putting all one's cards down in them (''going out''), and/or negatively for uncombined cards left over when someone else goes out, depending on the individual game.

The family appeared in the late 19th century, but its exact origins are uncertain. It has been variously derived from Mexico, poker and Ma-Jong.

==Patience or solitaire==

Card games for one player are known as patience in Britain and solitaire in America. The term "solitaire" in Britain refers to a quite different game, known in America as peg solitaire. There are an enormous variety of such games, or puzzles.

==Archaic trick games==

The oldest surviving card game is Karnöffel, Kaiserspiel or Kaiserjass, first recorded in 1426 and still played in remote Swiss valleys. It is played by four players in partnerships, originally using a 48-card pack (omitting aces). Nowadays 9s and 8s are also omitted, making a 40-card pack. Each player has 5 cards and the objective is to capture the majority of tricks. There is a trump suit, but not in the usual sense. Instead, different trumps have different powers.

In truc (French), there is no trump suit. Players are not required to follow suit, and do not lose out by failing to do so, as the trick is won by the highest card regardless of suit. If there are equal highest cards the trick does not count. In the Hispanic versions truque/truco, very popular in Uruguay and Argentina, some trumps are added to the simpler original French form.

In [[piquet]], widely regarded as the best card game for two players, which originated in France around 1500, the players are dealt 12 cards each from a 32-card pack (hence usually called a piquet pack in English). After discarding some cards and drawing replacements from the remaining 8 cards, they score for various combinations held in their hands, and for playing their cards in tricks. There is no trump suit.

==The five-card family==

These generally involve each player being dealt 5 cards, with the next card taurned face up to decide the trump suit. They include

#écarté, 19th century French: a popular upper-class gambling game for some time
#loo
#spoil five, also known as forty-five
#the euchre subfamily: the Joker was invented for the original game of euchre (hence its name), probably in the 1850s, and counts as the top trump; a derivative called five hundred is very popular in Australia
#nap, or more fully Napoleon

==The solo family==

In these games the players bid for the right to choose the trump suit. They bid to take a certain number of tricks, usually alone, but sometimes with a partner. The family includes

#hombre (Spanish) or ombre (English), originating in 16th century Spain for four players; by the middle of the next century this had gone out of fashion in favour of renegado for three and cinquillo for five; the three-player version was introduced to England under the name ombre, but was then superseded by the four-player one, under the name of quadrille; in Spain the three-player version was later named tresillo, but eventually died out around the Civil War; it survives in Denmark
#Boston whist, now extinct
#solo whist, or, more briefly and more accurately, just solo (unfortunately, there are a number of other games called solo in different languages): 19th century British

==The whist-bridge family==

Whist appears in the 17th century, in England. Its basic rules are simple. Four players, with the players sitting opposite each other being partners, receive 13 cards each from a 52-card pack. Dealer's last card is turned face up to determine the trump suit. The player on dealer's left leads to the first trick, with play proceeding clockwise. Players must follow suit if possible; otherwise they may play any card. Scoring is by number of tricks. There are also scores for holding high trumps. The game remains popular in England.

In the original game of bridge (sometimes called bridge-whist, or Russian whist), originated in the late 19th century and long obsolete, dealer nominated trumps, or else decided to play without a trump suit. After the opening lead, by the player on dealer's left, dealer's partner's hand is placed face up on the table, as ''dummy'', and dealer chooses the cards to be played from it.

Auction bridge appeared around 1900. As its name suggests, players bid for the right to name trumps, undertaking to take a certain number of tricks, with penalty scores for failure.

Contract bridge allows certain scores for making large numbers of tricks only if they are actually bid. Its basic scoring table was devised by the American Harold S. Vanderbilt in 1925/6, and has undergone only comparatively minor changes since then. It is organized on a worldwide basis, with official codes of laws, championships and so on. It is usually just called bridge.

==Tarot games==

In Italy in the 1430s, packs were first produced with an extra suit to serve as trumps. This suit had 22 cards as against 13 in the other suits, making a 78-card pack. Games using these packs have been played from then to now. (The use of tarot cards, or any other sort of playing cards, for fortune telling is much more recent: the earliest reference traced dates from 1781.) Scoring is by certain cards captured in tricks rather than the tricks themselves.

==Other archaic card-scoring games==

Some other archaic games also score by capturing certain cards. They are all played with smaller packs than the 52-card bridge pack. The oldest, trappola, was invented, probably in Venice, about 1500. Others include tressette, calabresella and the all fours subfamily. The "four" referred to in that name are high, low, jack and game: the top and bottom trumps in play, the jack of trumps and the largest total of scoring values from cards taken.

==Mainstream card-scoring games==

Many games use the following scoring table:

*ace 11 points
*ten 10 points
*king 4 points
*queen 3 points
*jack 2 points

An important game of this family is [[skat]], widely regarded as the best card game for three players, which originated in Germany around 1810. It is played with a 32-card pack, 10 going to each player and 2 to the skat. In play, cards usually rank in the order A 10 K Q 9 8 7, with the four jacks counting as the highest, or sometimes the only, trumps, depending on a complicated system of bidding. Scoring takes into account ''multipliers'', which, as the name suggests, multiply the score, positive or negative. These multipliers include ''matadors'', the number of top trumps in continuous sequence (beginning with the four jacks) held by the winner of the bidding, or occasionally not held.

==Marriage games==
{{main|Mariage card games}}
A subfamily of games with the above scoring table also include scores for holding both king and queen of trumps. In these games, most of the cards are left in the pack, and players draw replacement cards after each trick.

In klaberjass and the closely related game of belote, which appeared in France around the First World War and is very popular there, trumps rank J 9 A 10 K Q 8 7 while other suits rank as in skat.

In bezique, however, the above score table has been reduced. The main point of winning tricks is to gain the right to score for combinations in one's hand, such as marriages. Many of these combinations score much more than the card points, and the latter are simplified to 10 for each ace or ten, and in some forms of bezique omitted altogether. It originated in France in the early 19th century. The closely related game of pinochle is popular in America.

==Avoidance games==

Games where the object is to avoid taking tricks or certain cards vary according to what is to be avoided:

#in the game of hearts, the object is to avoid capturing hearts (late 19th century)
#in polignac, jacks
#in slobberhannes, the first and last tricks and the queen of clubs
#in bassadewitz, scoring points as in the table above
#in black Maria, hearts and the queen of spades (and sometimes the ace and king too)

[[nl:Kaartspel]]

Buddhism

2012-03-29T17:24:38Z

Mendelo: link nl:Boeddhisme

==Disclaimer==

'''Buddhism''' is such a vast and varied field that professional scholars who have studied it admit that it is impossible,<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page ix</ref> or virtually so,<ref>Lopez, ''(Story of) Buddhism'', Harper/Penguin, 2001, Acknowledgements</ref> for a single scholar to keep track of the whole field. As a result, all accounts of Buddhism, including this one, are unreliable.

A further difficulty is that recent scholarship tends to avoid generalization,<ref>''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', 30, page 289</ref> so the general statements making up most of this article may be unrepresentative.

Yet a further problem is that scholars have mostly tended to study scriptures and other classical literature rather than real live Buddhism (''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', volume 30, page 282). (But Buddhist sources are even worse. Would you trust the Pope or [[Billy Graham]] for a reliable unbiased account of Christianity?)

==Introduction==

'''Buddhism''' is usually considered a religion,<ref>''Numen'', volume 49, page 388/Williams, ''Buddhism'', Routledge, Volume III, 2005, page 403</ref> though most scholars agree that there is not a clear-cut distinction between religion and philosophy in Buddhism.<ref>Schroeder, ''Skillful Means'', University of Hawai'i Press, 2001, page 5</ref> It is the oldest of the three religions that have transcended ethnicity and spread round the world on a large scale.<ref>Bechert and Gombrich, ''World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson, 1984, page 7; Sopher, ''Geography of Religion'', Prentice-Hall, 1967, page 7; the other two are [[Christianity]] and [[islam]]; others have done so on a much smaller scale</ref> It is the official religion in Bhutan, Cambodia and Sri Lanka.<ref>Fox, ''World Survey of Religion and the State'', Cambridge University Press, 2008, Table 7.1 [page 182]</ref> There are significantly large communities of Buddhists in 126 countries.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 3</ref> More than half the world population is located in areas where Buddhism has been dominant at some point in history.<ref>''Penguin Handbook of the World's Living Religions'', 2010, page 371</ref> Most estimates of world Buddhist population are between 200 million and 300 million.<ref>Oxtoby & Amore, ''World Religions: Eastern Traditions'', Oxford University Press, 2010, page 181/Oxtoby & Segal, ''Concise Introduction to World Religions'', Oxford University Press, 2nd ed, 2012, page 376</ref>

==Teachings==

The received wisdom among American and European scholars, though contested, is that the central teachings of all or most traditions of [[Buddhism]] are the Four Noble Truths:<ref>''History of Religions'', volume 42, page 389; following explanation summarized from Keown, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1996, chapter 4</ref>

#life is suffering
#the cause of suffering is craving
#cessation of suffering can be brought about by cessation of craving
#this can be achieved by the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]:
##Right View
##Right Resolve
##Right Speech
##Right Action
##Right Livelihood
##Right Effort
##Right Mindfulness
##Right Meditation

==Institutions==

Buddhism is dominated by the monastic Order,<ref>Bechert & Gombrich, ''World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson, 1984, page 9</ref> though in Japan nearly all male clergy are married.<ref>''History of Religions'', volume 43, page 167</ref>

==Schools==

Buddhists identify themselves as either [[Theravada]] or [[Mahayana]].<ref>Keown, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1996, page 11</ref> These are different vehicles for going along the same path.<ref>Oxtoby & Amore, ''World Religions: Eastern Tradtions'', Oxford University Press, 2010, page 205/Oxtoby & Segal, ''Concise Introduction to the World Religions'', Oxford University Press, 1st ed, 2007, page 398/2nd ed, 2012, page 394</ref>

Most scholars agree with Theravada's claim to be extremely conservative.<ref>Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism'', Routledge: 1st ed, 1988, page 21/2nd ed, 2006, page 22</ref> It can be regarded as a single denomination.<ref>Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st ed, 1988/2nd ed, 2006, page 3</ref>

There is a growing consensus among scholars that Mahayana is not characterized by a collection of beliefs or practices.<ref>''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', volume 30, page 219</ref> It emphasizes adapting the teachings to suit different people, and is thus very diverse.<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', 2nd ed, 2006, Routledge, pages 1f</ref> The most popular form of Buddhism is [[Pure Land]].<ref>[http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/religionet/er/buddhism/BGLOSSRY.HTM#ltr.p Flesher, ''Exploring Religions'', University of Wyoming]</ref> It offers a way of salvation based on faith alone.<ref>Oxtoby & Amore, ''World Religions: Eastern Tradtions'', Oxford University Press, 2010, page 211/Oxtoby & Segal, ''Concise Introduction to World Religions'', 2nd ed, 2012, page 398</ref> It believes the Buddha Amitabha has the power to take his devotees to his Pure Land.<ref>Mitchell, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, ist ed, 2002, page 206/2nd ed, 2008, page 226</ref> The other main forms of Mahayana are Nichiren, Zen and Tibetan Buddhism.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Buddhism.html?id=A7UKjtA0QDwC Fowler, ''Buddhism'', Sussex Academic Press, 1999]</ref>

==Religious practices==

Nearly all Buddhists use ritual for spiritual ends.<ref>Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2004 (Volume One), page 139</ref>

Devotion is a major part of the lives of most Buddhists.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 170</ref>

For most of Buddhist history, meditation has been mainly monastic, and by no means universal even in that context.<ref>Lopez, ''Buddhist Scriptures'', Penguin Classics, 2004, page xxxii; Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, pages 502f</ref>

==Morality==

The most basic code of Buddhist morality is the Five Precepts (Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume Two), page 673): to refrain from

#taking life
#stealing
#sexual misconduct
#lying
#intoxicants

==Texts==

Different branches of Buddhism use different collections, though with some overlap.<ref>Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2004 (Volume Two), page 756</ref>

==History==

The founder of Buddhism is known as the Buddha, a title literally meaning "awakened" and often translated "enlightened". He was born in what is now Nepal and taught there and in nearby areas now in India. There is now a more or less established, <ref>Gethin, ''Sayings of the Buddha'', Oxford World Classics, 2008, page xv</ref> though not final,<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 107</ref> consensus among specialist historians that the Buddha died some time around 400 BC. Certain teachings are found with such frequency throughout the early texts that most historians conclude that he must have taught at least something of the sort.<ref>Mitchell, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1st ed, 2002, page 34</ref> Over the first few centuries of its existence Buddhism evolved into a number of schools, of which Theravada is the only survivor. Little or nothing is known of the origins of Mahayana.<ref>[http://www.iop.or.jp/0111/silk.pdf], page 91</ref> Buddhism eventually virtually died out in India.

Theravada Budhism was introduced into Ceylon around 250 BC. It spread from there to Burma in the 11th century, and from there to what are now Thailand, Cambodia and Laos over the next two centuries or so.

Buddhism spread through Central Asia to China, where it is first recorded in AD 65. It spread from there to Korea in the late 4th century, and was officially introduced from there to Japan in 538.

Buddhism was introduced to Tibet in the 7th or 8th century. The Mongols were converted to the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism in the 16th century. A migrating Mongol tribe settled Buddhism in Europe in the 17th century.

Buddhism has made significant numbers of converts in the West in the last couple of centuries, almost entirely of a style that emphasizes modernist elements.<ref>Keown & Prebish, Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 286</ref>

==References==

<references/>

[[nl:Boeddhisme]]

Religion

2012-03-29T16:47:24Z

Mendelo: ref

There is no consensus on the definition of '''religion''' (Clarke & Beyer, ''The World's Religions'', Routledge, 2009, page 136). Traditional definitions have tended to try to formulate the "western folk conception" of religion, i.e. the rather vague ideas ordinary westerners have of what religion is, based on their experience of religion in the west. As long ago as 1912, Leuba (''Psychology of Religion'') listed 50 different definitions, and many more have been suggested since. Most observers classify academic definitions into two types:

#substantive definitions, which try to define what religion "is"; most of these define it in terms of relation to the supernatural
#functional definitions, which try to define religion by the role it plays in the lives of individuals and/or societies

The former have been criticized as being too narrow: for example, some of them would exclude [[Buddhism]], which most people regard as a religion. The latter, on the other hand, have been criticized as too broad, allowing all sorts of things to be regarded as some people's "religion": sport, art, politics, drugs etc.

More recently, some scholars have argued that, rather than a single characteristic or group of characteristics, [[Wittgenstein]]'s [[family resemblance]] approach should be adopted to the definition of religion. As members of a family resemble each other in various ways, though there is no one characteristic or group of them that defines membership in the family, so a religion should be defined as something that has most, but not necessarily all, of a list of characteristics. A variety of such lists have been proposed by scholars.

==Classification of religions==

Religions have been classified in a variety of ways.

===Normative===

Normative classifications are those developed within particular religious traditions, which tend to classify other religions by how far they agree or disagree with the classifying tradition.

===Geographical===

These classifications classify religions by where they are found, or where they originated, or a mixture of the two.

===Ethnographic/linguistic===

These systems classify religions by the racial and/or linguistic groups in which they evolved. For example, Duren Ward's 1909 classification:

#Oceanian
#African
#American (Indian)
#Mongolian
#Mediterranean
#*Semitic
#*Aryan

===Philosophical===

Pfeiderer classified religions by the balance between dependence and freedom (listing from the most dependence-emphasizing):

*ancient Semites, Egyptians, Chinese
*Brahminism and Buddhism
*Islam
*Christianity
*Judaism
*Zoroastrianism
*Indians, Germans, Greeks, Romans

He regarded Christianity as the most balanced.

===Morphological===

A major classification of this type is that into ethnic religions and universal religions. Sometimes a third group is added, called segmental religions.

#ethnic religions: Hinduism, Judaism, Shinto, tribal religions, etc.
#universal religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam
#segmental religions: Sikhism, Jainism, Cao Dai

A classification that works out about the same as some versions of this is into religions founded by particular individuals at particular points of time and those that simply evolved.

Also in this category is Tielen's classification:

*nature religions
*ethical religions

===Phenomenological===

A major example of this is van der Leeuw's classification:

#religions of remoteness and flight: Confucianism and Deism
#religions of style: Zoroastrianism
#religions of strain and form: Greek
#religions of infinity and asceticism
#religions of nothingness and compassion: Buddhism
#religions of will and obedience: Judaism
#religions of majesty and humility: Islam
#religions of love: Christianity

==History==

Until around three millennia ago, religion was inseparable from ethnicity. Each ethnic group had its own religion. If you belonged to one you belonged to the other. Most of these ethnic religions have now died out, and most of the others are in serious decline, though [[Hinduism]] and [[Judaism]] are very much alive.

The first "new" religion to be founded seems to have been [[Zoroastrianism]], which became a major religion for some time, but declined and now survives on a very small scale. The same pattern holds for [[Jainism]]. [[Manichaeism]] became a major religion but died out altogether a few centuries ago. [[Mandaeanism]] never became a major religion, but still survives on a small scale. More than half the world's population now belongs to just three religions founded a couple of millennia ago: [[Buddhism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].

Starting with [[Sikhism]], a very large number of new religions have been founded in the last few centuries, most of which sank without trace. It was estimated in 2002 that there were 9900 religions, with 2 or 3 more founded every day.<ref>''History of Religions'', 42, 287f; ''Atlantic Monthly'', February 2002, page 38</ref>

In the twentieth century, substantial numbers of people abandoned religion altogether.

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Religion]]

[[nl:religie]]

Soluna Samay

2012-01-24T22:50:16Z

Rodejong: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soluna_Samay&oldid=473053194

'''Soluna Samay''' (born, '''Soluna Samay Kettel Ziegler''' on 27 August 1990, [[Guatemala City]], [[Guatemala]]) is a [[Danish]] singer. Samay will represent [[Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2012|Denmark]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2012]] in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]] with her entry "Should've Known Better".

== Early life ==
Samay's musician father [[Gerd G. Kettel]] is from [[Germany]] (Stage Name: Gee Gee Kettel) and her artisan mother is Annelis Ziegler from [[Switzerland]]. Samay grew up on the shores of [[Lake Atitlan]]. She attended the American [[Robert Muller LIFE school]]. Samay moved to Denmark in 2000 when her parents purchased a small farm on the Island of [[Bornholm]]. Samay is multilingual speaking fluent English, Danish, Spanish and German.

== Music career ==
Samay's music career began at age of 5 when she joined her father on drums and soon after began singing along. At the age of 10 she switched to electric bass, at 16 to upright bass. With her parents she spent her summers touring and playing music on the streets of Europe, and winters living in Guatemala. Soluna started to learn guitar around the age of 12, when she also wrote her first songs.

== National final and Eurovision 2012 ==
Samay was chosen as a wildcard entry by [[DR1]] for the [[Dansk Melodi Grand Prix]] (Danish Eurovision Song Contest), singing a song called "Should've Known Better" written by [[Remee Remee]] and [[Isam Bachiri|Isam B]] (Outlandish) and produced by [[Chief1]]. She won the Dansk Melodi Grand Prix 2012 on January 21, and will now represent Denmark at the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2012]].

== Debut album ==
Soluna recorded her debut album "Sing Out Loud" over a two year period, produced by Jesper Mejlvang and Michael Friis. It was released by [[Baltic Records]] on 23 September 2011.

== Discography ==
=== Gee Gee & Soluna ===
*''The Beat Goes On'' (Ozella Music; 2001)
*''Thinking Of You'' (Ozella Music; 2004)
*''Movin’ On'' (Chocolate Factory; 2006)
*''Lucky Seven'' (Funky Farm Records; 2007)
*''Just Passing Through'' (Chocolate Factory; 2008)
*''Streetwise'' (Funky Farm; 2009)
*''The Best & the Rest'' (Chocolate Factory; 2011)

=== Soluna Samay ===
*"I Wish I Was a Seagull" (single; Ozella Music; 2003)
*''Sing Out Loud'' (album; Baltic Records; 2011)
*"Two Seconds Ago" (single 2011)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

* TV2 Bornholm, 5 January 2012 http://www.tv2bornholm.dk/?newsID=58607.
* DR1 Aftenshow, 5 January 2012 http://www.dr.dk/melodigrandprix/Artikler/2012/0105205105.htm.
* Baltic Recording http://www.balticrecording.dk/?p=146 Baltic Records.
* Remee on Facebook http://www.facebook.com/RemeeDK
* Chief 1 AKA Lars Pederson http://www.myspace.com/chiefment
* Sing Out Loud Itunes http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/sing-out-loud/id461997681
* Soluna Samay Official Website http://solunasamay.com/

{{s-start}}
{{succession box |
before=[[A Friend in London]] with ''"[[New Tomorrow]]"'' |
title=[[Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest]] |
years=[[Eurovision Song Contest 2012|2012]] |
after=Incumbent|
}}
{{s-end}}

[[Category:Danish female singers]]
[[Category:Danish Eurovision Song Contest entrants]]
[[Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2012]]

[[nl:Soluna Samay]]

Tetragrammaton

2011-12-13T06:14:36Z

Lidewij: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetragrammaton&oldid=464555241

{{Other uses}}
{{redirect|YHWH|discussion of the God of Israel as described in the Hebrew Bible, and the Yahweh of ancient Semitic religion|Yahweh}}



[[File:Louvre 042010 01.jpg|thumb|The [[Mesha Stele]] bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the sacred [[Hebrew]] name of God – YHWH.]]
The term '''Tetragrammaton''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|τετραγράμματον}}'', meaning "[a word] having four letters")<ref>It originates from ''tetra'' "four" + ''gramma'' (gen. ''grammatos'') "letter") {{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=tetragrammaton |title=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref> refers to the [[Names of God in Judaism|name of the God of Israel]] '''YHWH''' ({{lang-he|יהוה}}) used in the [[Hebrew Bible]].


==Primary evidence: Occurrences in written texts==
{{Refimprove section|date=May 2011}}

===Hebrew Bible===
The Tetragrammaton occurs 6,828 times in the Hebrew text of both the [[Biblia Hebraica (Kittel)|Biblia Hebraica]] and [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]].<ref name="insight"/> The only books it does not appear in are the [[Song of Songs]], [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Book of Esther|Esther]]. It first appears in the Hebrew text in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 2:4.<ref name="insight">{{cite book
|title=Insight on the Scriptures
|volume=vol. 2
|page=8
|publisher=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
|chapter=Importance of the Name
|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=The Bible translator
|volume=vol. 56
|page=71
|publisher=United Bible Societies
|year=2005}}; {{cite book
|title=Nelson's expository dictionary of the Old Testament
|page=229
|publisher=Merrill Frederick Unger, William White
|year=1980}}</ref> The letters, properly read from right to left (in Biblical Hebrew), are:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Hebrew !! Letter name !! Pronunciation
|- valign=top
| {{Script/Hebrew|'''י'''}}
| [[Yodh]]
| "Y"
|- valign=top
| {{Script/Hebrew|'''ה'''}}
| [[He (letter)|He]]
| "H"
|- valign=top
| {{Script/Hebrew|'''ו'''}}
| [[vav (letter)|Waw]]
| "W", or placeholder for "O"/"U" vowel (see [[mater lectionis]])
|- valign=top
| {{Script/Hebrew|'''ה'''}}
| [[He (letter)|He]]
| "H" (or often a [[silent letter]] at the end of a word)
|}

====Frequency of use in scripture====
According to the [[Brown-Driver-Briggs]] Lexicon, {{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}} (Qr {{lang|he|אֲדֹנָי}}) occurs 6,518 times, and {{lang|he|יֱהֹוִה}} (Qr {{lang|he|אֱלֹהִים}}) occurs 305 times in the [[Masoretic]] Text.

It appears 6,823 times in the Jewish Bible, according to the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], and 6,828 times each in the ''[[Biblia Hebraica (Kittel)|Biblia Hebraica]]'' and ''[[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]]'' texts of the Hebrew Scriptures. This number in itself is quite remarkable considering the name compared with titles given to God, namely: [http://www.4yhwh.com/YHWH.htm God (2,605), Almighty (48), Lord (40), Maker (25), Creator (7), Father (7), Ancient of Days (3) and Grand Instructor (2).]

===[[Dead Sea scrolls]] Hebrew and Aramaic texts===
These scrolls are unvocalized. Many of these scrolls write (only) the tetragrammaton in [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|paleo-Hebrew script]], showing that the Name was treated specially. See [http://www.lectio.unibe.ch/05_2/troyer_names_of_god.htm this link].

===Dead Sea scrolls Greek texts===
===Loss of the Tetragrammaton in the Septuagint===
[[Septuagint]] study does give some credence to the possibility that the Divine Name appeared in its original texts. Dr [[Sidney Jellicoe]] concluded that "[[Paul E. Kahle|Kahle]] is right in holding that LXX [''= Septuagint''] texts, written by Jews for Jews, retained the Divine Name in Hebrew Letters (palaeo-Hebrew or Aramaic) or in the Greek-letters imitative form ''ΠΙΠΙ'', and that its replacement by ''Κύριος'' was a Christian innovation."<ref>Sidney Jellicoe, ''Septuagint and Modern Study'' (Eisenbrauns, 1989, ISBN 0-931464-00-5) pp. 271, 272.</ref> Jellicoe draws together evidence from a great many scholars (B. J. Roberts, Baudissin, Kahle and C.H. Roberts) and various segments of the Septuagint to draw the conclusions that: a) the absence of "Adonai" from the text suggests that the insertion of the term "Kyrios" was a later practice, b) in the Septuagint "Kyrios", or in English "Lord", is used to substitute the Name YHWH, and c) the Tetragrammaton appeared in the original text, but Christian copyists removed it. There is therefore a strong possibility that the Sacred Name was once integrated within the Greek text, but eventually disappeared.

Meyer suggests as one possibility that "as modern Hebrew letters were introduced, the next step was to follow modern Jews and insert 'Kyrios', Lord. This would prove this innovation was of a late date."

Bible scholars and translators as [[Eusebius]] and [[Jerome]] (translator of the Latin Vulgate) used the [[Hexapla]]. Both attest to the importance of the sacred Name and that the most reliable manuscripts contained the Tetragrammaton in Hebrew letters.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

Later translations into European languages which descended from the Septuagint tended to follow the Greek and use each language's word for "lord": Latin "Dominus", German "der Herr", English "the Lord", French "le Seigneur", etc.

[[File:Tetragrammaton a.jpg|thumb|The Tetragrammaton as represented in stained glass in an 1868 Episcopal Church in Iowa]]
[[File:Qumran.jpeg|thumb|The [[cave]]s in which the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] were found]]
These four letters are usually transliterated from Hebrew as IHVH in [[Latin language|Latin]], JHWH in [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]], and JHVH/YHWH in English. This has been variously rendered as "[[Yahweh]]" or as "[[Jehovah]]", based on the [[Latin]] form of the term,<ref>In the Latin alphabet there was no distinct lettering to distinguish 'Y' ('I') from 'J', or 'W' from 'V'.</ref> while the Hebrew text does not clearly indicate the omitted vowels.

In English translations, it is often rendered in [[Small caps|capital and small capital letters]] as "the {{LORD}}", following [[Judaism|Jewish]] tradition which reads the word as "[[Adonai]]" ("Lord") out of respect for the [[names of god|name of God]] and the interpretation of the [[Ten commandments|commandment]] not to take the name of God in vain. The word "{{unicode|haŠem}}", 'the Name' is also used in Jewish contexts; in Samaritan, "{{unicode|Šemå}}" is the normal substitution.

===In the Kabbalah and Chassidut===
A parallel is often drawn between the four letters of the tetragrammaton and the [[Four Worlds]], whereas the '''<big>י</big>''' is associated with [[Atziluth]], the first '''<big>ה</big>''' with [[Beri'ah]], the '''<big>ו</big>''' with [[Yetzirah]], and final '''<big>ה</big>''' with [[Assiah]].

===Magical papyri===
The spellings of the tetragrammaton occur among the many combinations and permutations of names of powerful agents that occur in [[Jewish magical papyri]] found in Egypt.<ref>B. Alfrink, ''La prononciation 'Jehova' du tétragramme,'' O.T.S. V (1948) 43-62.</ref> One of these forms is the heptagram {{polytonic|ιαωουηε}}.<ref>K. Preisendanz, ''Papyri Graecae Magicae'', Leipzig-Berlin, I, 1928 and II, 1931.</ref> In the Jewish magical papyri, ''Iave'' and {{polytonic|Iαβα}} ''Yaba'' occurs frequently.<ref>Footnote #9 from page 312 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "See [[Deissmann]], ''Bibelstudien'', 13 sqq."</ref>

In a [[Ethiopic]] Christian list of magical names of Jesus,{{When|date=April 2011}} purporting to have been taught by him to his disciples, ''Yawe'' is found.<ref>Footnote #10 from Page 312 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "See Driver, ''Studia Biblica, I. 20." Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition (New York: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1910–11), vol. 15, pp. 312, in the article "JEHOVAH".</ref>

===Aramaic papyri===
[[Image:Tetragrammaton scripts.svg|frame|left|The Tetragrammaton in [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]] (10th century BCE to 135 CE), old [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] (10th century BCE to 4th century CE) and square [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] (3rd century BCE to present) scripts.]]

The form ''Yahu'' or ''Yaho'' is attested not only in composition but also by itself in [[Hebrew and Aramaic papyri|Aramaic papyri]].
This is the form reflected as {{lang|grc|Ἰαω}} {{IPA-el|ˈʝa.o|}} in [[Greek magical papyri]].<ref>''Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assaan'', B 4,6,II; E 14; J 6; "This doubtless is the original of {{lang|grc|Ἰαω}} frequently found in Greek authors and in magical texts as the name of the God of the Jews." ([[EB 1911]])</ref> ({{IPA|[h]}} was not represented by a separate letter in Greek.)

In its earlier form this opinion rested chiefly on certain misinterpreted testimonies in [[Greek language|Greek]] authors about a god {{lang|grc|Ἰαω}} and was conclusively refuted by Baudissin; recent adherents of the theory build more largely on the occurrence in various parts of this territory of proper names of persons and places which they explain as compounds of Yahu or Yah.<ref>Footnote #4 from Page 313 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "See a collection and critical estimate of this evidence by Zimmern, ''Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament'', 465 sqq."</ref>

The explanation is in most cases simply an assumption of the point at issue; some of the names have been misread; others are undoubtedly the names of Jews.

There remain, however, some cases in which it is highly probable that names of non-Israelites are really compounded with Yahweh. The most conspicuous of these is the king of Hamath who in the inscriptions of Sargon (722-705 BCE) is called Yaubi'di and Ilubi'di (compare Jehoiakim-Eliakim). Azriyau, also, in inscriptions of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] (745-728 BCE), who was formerly supposed to be [[Uzziah of Judah]] and/or king of Sam'al, was king of an unknown city-state in northern [[Syria]], probably Hatarikka-Luhuti.<ref>J.D. Hawkins: ''Izrijau'', in ''Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie'' vol. 5, p. 227. Berlin; New York: de Gruyter 1976–1980.</ref> Also, in [[Byblos]] have been found inscriptions telling about the kings named Yehimilk "YH the king" (XI-X BCE)<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16947&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Inscription de Yehimilk, roi de Byblos (XI-X)], [[UNESCO]], "Memory of the World" program.</ref><ref>Nina Jidejian, Maurice Dunand, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qzuFAAAAIAAJ&dq=Yehimilk+Byblos&q=Yehimilk Byblos through the ages.]'', p. 69, Beirut: Dar el-Machreq Publ., 1968.</ref> and Yehawmilk "YHW the king" (V BCE).<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673225281&CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673225281&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500787&baseIndex=0&bmLocale=en Yehawmilk stele], [[Louvre]] collection.</ref><ref>[http://history.studentreader.com/phoenician-cities-byblos Phoenician Cities: Byblos], Student Reader.</ref>

Deity named YW is mentioned in the [[Ugarit]]ic text as one of the many sons of [[El (deity)|El]]. KTU 1.1 IV 14 says:
: ''sm . bny . yw . ilt''
"The name of the son of god, YW".<ref>[http://www.theology.edu/ugarbib.htm Ugarit and the Bible], site of Quartz Hill School of Theology.</ref><ref name="markssmith">Smith, Mark S. (2001) ''The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-516768-6).</ref> That this is a reference to Yahweh, however, has not been widely accepted among scholars, especially since yhwh is entirely absent in all other Ugaritic texts, that the longer form yhwh is likely earlier than the abbreviated yw, and since it is much more probable that the deity referred to in KTU 1.1 IV: 14 is the Ugaritic god Yammu.<ref>van der Toorn, ''Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible," 911; Mark S. Smith, ''The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, Volume 1: Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.1-1.2 (VTSup 55; Leiden: Brill, 1994), 151-52; D. N. Freedman and Michael O'Connor, TDOT 5:510; Marvin H. Pope, ''Syrien: Die Mythologie der Ugariter und Phonizier," in Gotter und Mythen im vorderen Orient (vol. 1, part 1 of Worterbuch Der Mythologie; ed. H. W. Haussig; Suttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag, 1965), 291-92.</ref>

===Mesopotamian texts===
Despite the expectations of earlier years no direct evidence of the name "Yahweh", the tetragrammaton, in Canaanite texts has yet been found.<ref>Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible DDD K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, 1999:960 "In no list of gods or offerings is the mysterious god *Ya ever mentioned; his cult at Ebla is a chimera. Yahweh was not known at Ugarit either; the singular name Yw (vocalisation unknown) in a damaged passage of the Baal Cycle (KTU 1.1 "</ref>

====19th century scholarship====
[[Friedrich Delitzsch]] (1902) brought into notice three tablets, of the age of the first dynasty of Babylon, in which he read the names of men called ''Ya-a'-ve-ilu, Ya-ve-ilu, and Ya-u-um-ilu'' (meaning "Yahweh is God"), and which he regarded as conclusive proof that Yahweh was known in Babylonia before 2000 BCE; he was a god of the [[Semitic]] invaders in the second wave of migration, who were, according to Winckler and Delitzsch, of North Semitic stock ([[Canaanite languages|Canaanites]], in the linguistic sense).<ref>Footnote #5 from Page 313 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "''Babel und Bibel'', 1902. The enormous, and for the most part ephemeral, literature provoked by Delitzsch's lecture cannot be cited here.</ref>

In 1910 the Encyclopædia Britannica stated that we should thus have in the tablets evidence of the worship of Yahweh among the Western Semites at a time long before the rise of Israel. The reading of the names is, however, extremely uncertain, not to say improbable, and the far-reaching inferences drawn from them carry no conviction.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition (New York: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1910–11), vol. 15, pp. 312, in the Article "JEHOVAH".</ref>

In 1903 [[Ernst Sellin]] excavated at [[Ta'annuk]] (the city [[Taanach]] of the [[Book of Joshua]]) a tablet attributed to the 14th century BCE, in which a man is mentioned whose name may be read Ahi-Yawi, equivalent to the Hebrew name [[Ahijah]].<ref>Footnote #6 from Page 313 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "''Denkschriften d. Wien. Akad''., L. iv. p. 115 seq. (1904)."</ref> If the reading be correct, this would suggest that Yahweh was worshipped in Central Palestine before the Israelite conquest.<ref name="Stanley S. Seidner 1987"/> {{Bibleref2|Genesis|14:17|HE}} describes a meeting between [[Melchizedek]] the king/priest of Salem and Abraham. Both these pre-conquest figures are described as worshipping the same "Most High God" later identified as Yahweh.

The reading is, however, only one of several possibilities. The fact that the full form Yahweh appears, whereas in Hebrew proper names only the shorter ''Yahu'' and ''Yah'' occur, weighs somewhat against the interpretation, as it does against Delitzsch's reading of his tablets.

It would not be at all surprising{{Or|date=March 2011}} if, in the great movements of populations and shifting of ascendancy which lie beyond our historical horizon, the worship of Yahweh should have been established in regions remote from those which it occupied in historical times; but nothing which we now know warrants the opinion that his worship was ever general among the Western Semites.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

Many attempts have been made to trace the [[Northwest Semitic]] Yahu back to Babylonia. Thus Delitzsch (1881) formerly derived the name from an [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] god, I or [[Enki|Ia]]; or from the Semitic nominative ending, [[Yaw (god)|Yau]];<ref>Footnote #7 from Page 313 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "''Wo lag das Paradies?'' (1881), pp. 158–166."</ref>

====Modern scholarship====
This deity, Delitzsch's Yahu, has since disappeared from the pantheon of [[Assyriologist]]s. [[Jean Bottéro]] (2000) speculates that the West Semitic Yah/Ia, in fact is a version of the Babylonian God [[Ea (Babylonian god)|Ea]] (Enki), a view given support by the earliest finding of this name at [[Ebla]] during the reign of [[Ebrum]], at which time the city was under [[Mesopotamia]]n hegemony of [[Sargon of Akkad]].<ref>[[Jean Bottéro]] ''Antiqities assyro-babyloniennes (L'Epopee d'Ena)'' Annuaire EPHE (1977–78) 160.</ref>

==Etymology and meaning of YHWH==

{{main|Yahweh}}
It has most often been proposed that the name YHWH is a verb form derived from the Biblical Hebrew [[triconsonantal]] root היה (''h-y-y'') "to be", which has הוה (''h-w-y'') as a variant form, with a third person masculine ''y-'' prefix.<ref name="The New 1907">''The New [[Brown–Driver–Briggs]]-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic'' by Frances Brown, with the cooperation of S.R. Driver and Charles Briggs (1907), p. 217ff (entry יהוה listed under root הוה).</ref> This would connect it to the passage in verse Exodus 3:14, where God gives his name as אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה (Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh), translated most basically as "[[I am that I am]]" (or "I will be that which I now am"). יהוה with the vocalization "Yahweh" could theoretically be a ''hif'il'' verb inflection of root HWH, with a meaning something like "he who causes to exist" or "who gives life" (the root idea of the word perhaps being "to breathe", and hence, "to live").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=52&letter=N#164 |title=Names Of God |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |date= |accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref> As a ''qal'' (basic stem) verb inflection, it could mean "he who is, who exists".<ref name="The New 1907"/>

==Pronunciation: the question of which vowels==

The authentic, historically correct pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton is not known, and the consensus view at various points in history has not been consistent. The current scholarly consensus is that the vowel diacritic points attached to the written consonants YHWH in the Masoretic orthography of Biblical Hebrew were not intended to represent the vowels of such an authentic and historically correct pronunciation, but this was not always understood by Christian Hebrew scholars. {{listen|filename=He-YHWH.ogg |title=YHWH|description=The pronunciation as it is vowel pointed in the [[Masoretic Text]], certain scholars do not hold the pronunciation to be correct.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

===Theophoric names===
Yeho or "Yehō-" is the prefix form of "YHWH" used in Hebrew [[theophoric name]]s; the suffix form Yahū" or "-Yehū" is just as common. This has caused two opinions:

# In former times (at least from c.1650 CE), the prefix pronunciation "Yehō-" was sometimes connected with the full pronunciation "Yehova" derived from combining the Masoretic vowel points for "Adonai" with the consonantal Tetragrammaton YHWH.
# Recently that, as "Yahweh" is likely an [[imperfective]] verb form, "Yahu" is its corresponding [[preterite]] or [[jussive]] short form: compare ''{{unicode|yiŝtahaweh}}'' (imperfective), ''{{unicode|yiŝtáhû}}'' (preterit or jussive short form) = "do obeisance".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.fortunecity.com/yahuwthah/Resource-577/AnsonLetter.htm |title=AnsonLetter.htm |publisher=Members.fortunecity.com |date= |accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref>

Those who argue for argument 1 above are the: [[George Wesley Buchanan]] in ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]''; [http://img.villagephotos.com/p/2003-7/264290/Smithspage953Reland190pixels.JPG Smith’s 1863 ''A Dictionary of the Bible'']; Section # 2.1 ''The Analytical Hebrew & Chaldee Lexicon'' (1848)<ref>The Analytical Hebrew & Chaldee Lexicon'' by [[Benjamin Davidson]] ISBN 0-913573-03-5.</ref> in its article '''{{lang|he|הוה}}'''.

Smith's 1863 ''A Dictionary of the Bible'' says that "Yahweh" is possible because shortening to "Yahw" would end up as "Yahu" or similar. [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=52&letter=N&search=Theophoric%20Names The Jewish Encyclopedia of 1901–1906 in the Article:Names Of God] has a very similar discussion, and also gives the form Yo ({{Script/Hebrew|יוֹ}}) contracted from Yeho ({{Script/Hebrew|יְהוֹ}}). The Encyclopædia Britannica<ref>"Jehovhah." ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th edition (New York: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1910–11, vol. 15, 312 pp.</ref> also says that "Yeho-" or "Yo" can be explained from "Yahweh", and that the suffix "-yah" can be explained from "Yahweh" better than from "Yehovah".

Chapter 1 of [http://www.tetragrammaton.org/tetra1.html#chapter1 The Tetragrammaton and the Christian Greek Scriptures], under the heading '''The Pronunciation Of God's Name''' quotes from ''[[Insight on the Scriptures]]'', Volume 2, page 7:
:Hebrew Scholars generally favor "Yahweh" as the most likely pronunciation. They point out that the abbreviated form of the name is Yah ([[Jah]] in the Latinized form), as at {{Bibleref2|Psalm|89:8}} and in the expression Hallelu-Yah (meaning "Praise Yah!" [[imperative mood|imp.]] [[plural|pl.]]).{{Bibleref2c|Ps.|104:35}} {{Bibleref2c-nb|Ps.|150:1,6}} The forms Yeho', Yo, Yah, and Ya'hu, found in the Hebrew spelling of the names of Yehoshaphat, Yoshaphat, Shefatyah, and others, could be derived from Yahweh... Still, there is by no means unanimity among scholars on the subject, some favoring yet other pronunciations, such as "Yahuwa," "Yahuah," or "Yehuah."

===Using consonants as semi-vowels (v/w)===
In [[Biblical Hebrew language|ancient Hebrew]], the [[Hebrew alphabet#Numerical value and pronunciation|letter {{Script/Hebrew|ו}}]], known to modern Hebrew speakers as ''vav'', [[Hebrew alphabet#Pronunciation of Ancient Hebrew|was]] a semivowel {{IPA|/w/}} (as in English, not as in German) rather than a {{IPA|/v/}}.<ref>(see any Hebrew grammar).</ref> The letter is referred to as ''[[Waw (letter)|waw]]'' in the academic world. Because the ancient pronunciation differs from the modern pronunciation, it is common today to represent {{lang|he|יהוה}} as YHWH rather than YHVH.

In unpointed Biblical Hebrew, most vowels are not written and the rest are written only ambiguously, as the vowel letters are also used as consonants (similar to the [[Latin]] use of V to indicate both U and V). See [[Matres lectionis]] for details. For similar reasons, an appearance of the Tetragrammaton in ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] records of the [[13th century BCE]] sheds no light on the original pronunciation.<ref>See pages 128 and 236 of the book "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by archeologist William G. Dever, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, 2003.</ref> Therefore it is, in general, difficult to deduce how a word is pronounced from its spelling only, and the Tetragrammaton is a particular example: two of its letters can serve as vowels, and two are vocalic place-holders, which are not pronounced.

This difficulty occurs somewhat also in Greek when transcribing Hebrew words, because of Greek's lack of a letter for consonant 'y' and (since loss of the [[digamma]]) of a letter for "w", forcing the Hebrew consonants yod and waw to be transcribed into Greek as vowels. Also, non-initial 'h' caused difficulty for Greeks and was liable to be omitted; х ([[chi (letter)|chi]]) was pronounced as 'k' + 'h' (as in modern [[Hindi]] "[[lakh]]") and could not be used to spell 'h' as in [[Modern Greek]] {{lang|el|Χάρρι}} = "Harry", for example.

===Yahweh or Jahweh===
The Latin pronunciation of the letter I/J as a consonant sound was {{IPAblink|j}}, the 'y' sound of the English word 'you'. This changed in descendent languages into various stronger consonants, including at one point in French {{IPAblink|dʒ}}, the 'j' sound of the word 'juice', and this was the sound the letter came to be used for in English. Thus the English pronunciation of the older form ''Jehovah'' has this 'j' sound, following the English pronunciation of its Latin spelling. In order to preserve the Latin (and approximate Hebrew) pronunciation of ''Jahweh'', however, the English spelling was changed to ''Yahweh''.

===Examining the vowel points of {{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}} and {{lang|he|אֲדֹנָי}}===
{{Off-topic|date=March 2011}}
{{merge|Jehovah|date=October 2010}}
''Jehovah'' is favored by [[Protestantism|Protestant denominations]] as the English spelling of the personal name of God.

Most scholars believe "Jehovah" to be a late (ca. 1100 CE) hybrid form derived by combining the Latin letters ''JHVH'' with the vowels of ''Adonai'', but there is some evidence that it may already have been in use in [[Late Antiquity]] (5th century).

[[File:Tetragrammaton-related-Masoretic-vowel-points.png|thumb|right|220px|The spelling of the Tetragrammaton and connected forms in the Hebrew Masoretic text of the Bible, with [[Niqqud|vowel points]] shown in red.]]

In the table below, ''Yehowah'' and ''Adonai'' are dissected
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
!colspan="3"|Hebrew Word #3068 YEHOVAH {{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}}
!colspan="3"|Hebrew Word #136 ADONAY {{lang|he|אֲדֹנָי}}
|-
| {{hebrew|י}} ||Yod||Y|| {{hebrew|א}} ||Aleph||[[glottal stop]]
|-
| {{hebrew|ְ}} ||Simple Shewa||E|| {{hebrew|ֲ}} ||Hatef Patah||A
|-
| {{hebrew|ה}} ||Heh||H|| {{hebrew|ד}} ||Daleth||D
|-
| {{hebrew|ֹ}} ||Holem||O|| {{hebrew|ֹ}} ||Holem||O
|-
| {{hebrew|ו}} ||Waw||W|| {{hebrew|נ}} ||Nun||N
|-
| {{hebrew|ָ}} ||Kametz||A|| {{hebrew|ָ}} ||Kametz||A
|-
| {{hebrew|ה}} ||Heh||H|| {{hebrew|י}} ||Yod||Y
|}

Note in the table directly above that the "simple shewa" in ''Yehowah'' and the ''hatef patah'' in ''Adonai'' are not the same vowel. The same information is displayed in the table above and to the right where "''YHWH'' intended to be pronounced as ''Adonai''" and "''Adonai'', with its slightly different vowel points" are shown to have different vowel points.

===Kethib and Qere and Qere perpetuum===
The original consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible was provided with vowel marks by the [[Masoretes]] to assist reading. In places where the consonants of the text to be read (the [[Qere]]) differed from the consonants of the written text (the [[Kethib]]), they wrote the Qere in the margin as a note showing what was to be read. In such a case the vowels of the Qere were written on the Kethib. For a few very frequent words the marginal note was omitted: this is called [[Q're perpetuum]].

One of these frequent cases was the Tetragrammaton, which according to later Jewish practices should not be pronounced, but read as "{{lang|he-Latn|Adonai}}" ("My Lord [plural of majesty]"), or, if the previous or next word already was "{{lang|he-Latn|Adonai}}", or "{{lang|he-Latn|Adoni}}" ("My Lord"), as "{{lang|he-Latn|Elohim}}" ("God"). This combination produces {{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}} and {{lang|he|יֱהֹוִה}} respectively, [[ghost word|non-words]] that would spell "yehovah" and "yehovih" respectively.

The oldest manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, such as the [[Aleppo Codex]] and the [[Codex Leningradensis]] mostly write {{Hebrew|יְהוָה}} (yehvah), with no pointing on the first H; this could be because the ''o'' diacritic point plays no useful role in distinguishing between ''Adonai'' and ''Elohim'' (and so is redundant), or could point to the Qere being '{{unicode|Shema}}', which is [[Aramaic]] for "the Name".

===Jehovah===
Later, Christian Europeans who did not know about the [[Q're perpetuum]] custom took these spellings at face value, producing the form "[[Jehovah]]" and spelling variants of it. The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] [1913, Vol. VIII, p. 329] states: "Jehovah (Yahweh), the proper name of God in the Old Testament." Had they known about the Q're perpetuum, the term "Jehovah" may have never come into being.<ref>"Job – Introduction, [[Anchor Bible]], volume 15, page XIV and "Jehovah" Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition, volume 15.</ref> For more information, see the page [[Jehovah]]. Most scholars recognise Jehovah to be "grammatically impossible" ([[Jewish Encyclopedia]], Vol VII, p. 8).

==={{Lang|he|יַהְוֶה}} = Yahweh===

In the early 19th century Hebrew scholars were still critiquing "Jehovah" [a.k.a. Iehovah and Iehouah] because they believed that the vowel points of {{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}} did not represent (and were never intended to represent) the vowel sounds of the early authentic pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton. The Hebrew scholar [[Wilhelm Gesenius]] [1786–1842] had suggested that the Hebrew punctuation {{lang|he|יַהְוֶה}}, which is transliterated into English as "Yahweh", might more accurately represent the actual pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton than the Biblical Hebrew punctuation "{{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}}", from which the English name Jehovah has been derived.

[[File:YHWH.png|frame|right|150px|right|[[William Gesenius]]'s Hebrew punctuation (i.e., Yahweh)]]

His proposal to read YHWH as "{{Hebrew|יַהְוֶה}}" (see image to the right) was based in large part on various Greek transcriptions, such as [[iabe|ιαβε]], dating from the first centuries CE, but also on the forms of theophoric names. In his Hebrew Dictionary, Gesenius supports "Yahweh" (which would have been pronounced {{IPA|[jahwe]}}, with the final letter being silent) because of the Samaritan pronunciation {{polytonic|Ιαβε}} reported by [[Theodoret]], and that the [[theophoric name]] prefixes YHW {{IPA|[jeho]}} and YH {{IPA|[jo]}} can be explained from the form "Yahweh". Today many scholars accept Gesenius's proposal to read YHWH as {{Hebrew|יַהְוֶה}}. Gesenius' proposal gradually became accepted as the best scholarly reconstructed vocalized Hebrew spelling of the Tetragrammaton.

Delitzsch prefers "{{Hebrew|יַהֲוָה}}" ({{unicode|yahavah}}) since he considered the [[shewa quiescens]] below {{lang|he|ה}} ungrammatical. In his 1863 "A Dictionary of the Bible", William Smith prefers the form "{{Hebrew|יַהֲוֶה}}" (yahaveh). Many other variations have been proposed.

===The Leningrad Codex of 1008–1010===
Vowel points were added to the Tetragrammaton by the [[Masoretes]], in the first millennium.

Six Hebrew spellings of the Tetragrammaton are found in the [[Leningrad Codex]] of 1008–1010, as shown below. The entries in the Close Transcription column are not intended to indicate how the name was intended to be pronounced by the Masoretes, but only how the word would be pronounced if read without ''[[Q're and Ketib|q're perpetuum]]''.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Chapter & Verse||Hebrew Spelling||Close transcription||Ref.||Explanation
|-
| <center>Genesis 3:14</center>||<center>{{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}}</center>||<center>{{unicode|Yǝhōwāh}}</center>||<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tanach.us/Tanach.xml#Gen3:14-3:14 |title=Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex |publisher=Tanach.us |date= |accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref></center>||This is the most common set of vowels, which are essentially the vowels from Adonai (with the hataf patah reverting to its natural state as a shewa).
|-
| <center>Judges 16:28</center>||<center>{{lang|he|יְהוָה}}</center>||<center>{{unicode|Yǝhwāh}}</center>||<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tanach.us/Tanach.xml#Judges16:28 |title=Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex |publisher=Tanach.us |date= |accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref></center>||This is the same as above, but with the dot over the holam/waw left out, because it is a little redundant.
|-
| <center>Judges 16:28</center>||<center>{{lang|he|יֱהֹוִה}}</center>||<center>{{unicode|Yĕhōwih}}</center>||<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tanach.us/Tanach.xml#Judg16:28-16:28 |title=Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex |publisher=Tanach.us |date= |accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref></center>||When the Tetragrammaton is preceded by Adonai, it receives the vowels from the name Elohim instead. The hataf segol does not revert to a shewa because doing so could lead to confusion with the vowels in Adonai.
|-
| <center>Genesis 15:2</center>||<center>{{lang|he|יֱהוִה}}</center>||<center>{{unicode|Yĕhwih}}</center>||<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tanach.us/Tanach.xml#Gen15:2-15:2 |title=Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex |publisher=Tanach.us |date= |accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref></center>||Just as above, this uses the vowels from Elohim, but like the second version, the dot over the holam/waw is omitted as redundant.
|-
| <center>1 Kings 2:26</center>||<center>{{lang|he|יְהֹוִה}}</center>||<center>{{unicode|Yǝhōwih}}</center>||<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tanach.us/Tanach.xml#1%20Kings2:26-2:26 |title=Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex |publisher=Tanach.us |date= |accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref></center>||Here, the dot over the holam/waw is present, but the hataf segol does get reverted to a shewa.
|-
| <center>Ezekiel 24:24</center>||<center>{{lang|he|יְהוִה}}</center>||<center>{{unicode|Yǝhwih}}</center>||<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tanach.us/Tanach.xml#Ezek24:24-24:24 |title=Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex |publisher=Tanach.us |date= |accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref></center>||Here, the dot over the holam/waw is omitted, and the hataf segol gets reverted to a shewa.
|}
'''{{unicode|ĕ}}''' is [[hataf segol]]; '''{{unicode|ǝ}}''' is the pronounced form of plain [[shewa]].

The ''o'' diacritic dot over the letter waw is often omitted because it plays no useful role in distinguishing between the two intended pronunciations Adonai and Elohim (which both happen to have an ''o'' vowel in the same position).

[[Gérard Gertoux]] wrote that in the Leningrad Codex, the [[Masoretes]] used 7 different vowel pointings [i.e., 7 different [[Q're]]'s] for YHWH. [Note that one of these different vowel pointings is not a true variant, but was the result of the addition of an inseparable preposition to YHWH]<ref>refer to the table on page 144 of Gérard Gertoux's book ''The Name of God Y.EH.OW.Ah which is pronounced as it is written I_EH_OU_AH''.</ref> A version of the BHS text, which is derived from the Leningrad Codex, is used to translate the Old Testament of almost all English Bibles other than the King James Bible. The Brown–Driver–Briggs Lexicon of 1905 shows only two different vowel pointings [ i.e. variants ] of YHWH are found in the Ben Chayyim Hebrew Text of 1525, which underlies the Old Testament of the King James Bible.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://img.villagephotos.com/p/2003-7/264290/bdbandstrong290.jpg |title=villagephotos.com}}</ref>

===The vocalizations of {{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}} and {{lang|he|אֲדֹנָי}} are not identical===
The [[schwa]] in YHWH (the vowel under the first letter, <big>{{Script/Hebrew|ְ}}</big>) and the [[niqqud|hataf patakh]] in 'DNY (the vowel under its first letter, <big>{{Script/Hebrew|ֲ}}</big>), appear different. One reason suggested{{Who|date=January 2009}} is that the spelling {{lang|he|יֲהֹוָה }} (with the hataf patakh) risks that a reader might start pronouncing "Yah", which is a form of the Name, thus completing the first half of the full Name.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} Alternatively, the vocalization can be attributed to [[Biblical Hebrew]] [[phonology]],<ref>Lambdin, Thomas O.: ''Introduction to Biblical Hebrew'', London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.</ref> where the hataf patakh is grammatically identical to a schwa, always replacing every [[niqqud|schwa naḥ]] under a [[guttural|guttural letter]]. Since the first letter of {{lang|he|אֲדֹנָי}} is a guttural letter, while the first letter of {{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}} is not, the hataf patakh under the (guttural) [[aleph]] reverts to a regular schwa under the (non-guttural) [[yodh]].

===Josephus's description of vowels===
[[Josephus]] in ''[[Jewish Wars]]'', chapter V, verse 235, wrote "{{polytonic|τὰ ἱερὰ γράμματα*ταῦτα δ' ἐστὶ φωνήεντα τέσσαρα}}" ("''...[engraved with] the holy letters; and they are four [[vowel]]s''"), presumably because Hebrew [[yod (letter)|yod]] and [[waw (letter)|waw]], even if consonantal, would have to be transcribed into the Greek of the time as vowels.

===Conclusions===
Various people draw various conclusions from this Greek material.

[[William Smith (lexicographer)|William Smith]] writes in his 1863 [http://img.villagephotos.com/p/2003-7/264290/yahwehfromiabe660pixels.JPG "A Dictionary of the Bible"] about the different Hebrew forms supported by these Greek forms:

: ... The votes of others are divided between {{Hebrew|יַהְוֶה}} (yahveh) or {{Hebrew|יַהֲוֶה}} (yahaveh), supposed to be represented by the {{polytonic|Ιαβέ}} of Epiphanius mentioned above, and {{Hebrew|יַהְוָה}} (yahvah) or {{Hebrew|יַהֲוָה}} (yahavah), which Fürst holds to be the Ιευώ of Porphyry, or the {{polytonic|Ιαού}} of Clemens Alexandrinus.

==Usage: the question of whether to say the name out loud==

[[File:YHWH.JPG|thumb|240px|{{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}} in the [[Karlskirche]], [[Vienna]].]]

===In Judaism===
====Usage of the name in Bible times====
{{Bibleref2|Exod.|3:15}} is used to support the use of the Name YHWH: "this is My name for ever, and this is My memorial unto all generations."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0203.htm#15 |title=15 And God said moreover unto Moses: 'Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel: The LORD, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, hath sent me unto you; this is My name for ever, and this is My memorial unto all generations |publisher=mechon-mamre.org |accessdate=7 October 2010}}</ref> The word "forever" is "le'olam" which in biblical Hebrew means "always, continually".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://morfix.mako.co.il/default.aspx?q=לעולם |title=Morphix Dictionary}}</ref>

Many Scriptures do favour the use of the name. The biblical law does not prohibit the use of the name, but it warns against "misuse", "blaspheming" or in ordinary terms, "taking lightly" the name of YHWH. The Biblical texts suggest the people of the Bible—including the patriarchs—used the name of YHWH. A wealth of scriptures support this notion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Gen.%2012:8;%2013:18;%2021:33;%2022:14;%2026:%2026,%2028:21;%20Exodus%2020:7%20and%20Deuteronomy%205:11;&version=31; |title=Genesis 12:8; Genesis 13:18; Genesis 21:33; Genesis 22:14; Genesis 26:26; Genesis 28:21 (New International Version) |publisher=biblegateway.com |accessdate=7 October 2010}}</ref>

====Substitution of HaShem or Adonai====
Observant Jews write down but do not pronounce the Tetragrammaton, because it is considered too sacred to be used for common activities. Even ordinary prayer is considered too common for this use. The Tetragrammaton was pronounced by the high priest on [[Yom Kippur]] when [[Temple in Jerusalem|the temple]] was standing in Jerusalem. Since the destruction of [[Second Temple of Jerusalem]] in CE 70, the Tetragrammaton is no longer pronounced, and while Jewish [[kabbalistic]] tradition holds that the correct pronunciation is known to a select few people in each generation, it is not generally known what this pronunciation is. Instead, common Jewish use has been to substitute the name "{{lang|he-Latn|[[Adonai]]}}" ("My Lord") where the Tetragrammaton appears.

The [[Masoretes]] added vowel points ([[niqqud]]) and [[cantillation]] marks to the manuscripts to indicate vowel usage and for use in the ritual chanting of readings from the [[Bible]] in [[synagogue]] [[Jewish services|services]]. To {{lang|he|יהוה}} they added the vowels for "{{lang|he-Latn|[[Adonai]]}}" ("My Lord"), the word to use when the text was read.

Many Jews will not use "{{lang|he-Latn|Adonai}}" except when praying, and substitute other terms, e.g., {{unicode|haŠem}} ("The Name") or the [[nonsense word]] Ado-Shem, to avoid misuse of the divine name. In written English, "[[G-d]]" is a substitute used by some Jews.

Parts of the [[Talmud]], particularly those dealing with [[Yom Kippur]], seem to imply{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} that the Tetragrammaton should be pronounced in several ways, with only one (not explained in the text, and apparently kept by [[oral tradition]] by the [[Kohen Gadol]]) being the personal name of God.

In late kabbalistic works the Tetragrammaton is sometimes referred to as the name of Havayah—{{lang|he|הוי'ה}}, meaning "the Name of Being/Existence".

Translators often render YHWH as a word meaning "Lord", e.g., Greek {{polytonic|Κυριος}}, Latin ''{{lang|la|Dominus}}'', and following that, English "the {{LORD}}", Welsh ''{{lang|cy|Arglwydd}}'', etc. However, all of the above are inaccurate translations of the Tetragrammaton.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

Because the name was no longer pronounced and its own vowels were not written, its pronunciation was forgotten. When later Christians groups, outside the major Christian Catholic denominations, unaware of the Jewish tradition, started to read the Hebrew Bible, they read {{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}} as written with YHWH's consonants with {{lang|he-Latn|Adonai}}'s vowels{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}, and thus said or transcribed '''Iehovah'''. Today this transcription is generally recognized as mistaken; however many religious groups continue to use the form Jehovah because it is familiar.

[[Josephus]], who as a priest knew the pronunciation of the name, declares that religion forbids him to divulge it.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}

[[File:Shefa Tal.png|280px|left|thumb|A Kabbalah explantion of the [[Priestly Blessing]] with Adonai inscribed]]

[[Philo]] calls it [[ineffable]], and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy place (that is, for priests in the Temple). In another passage, commenting on Lev. xxiv. 15 seq.: "If any one, I do not say should [[blaspheme]] against the Lord of men and gods, but should even dare to utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the penalty of death."<ref>Footnote #3 from page 311 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "See Josephus, ''Ant''. ii. 12, 4; Philo, ''Vita Mosis'', iii. II (ii. 114, ed. Cohn and Wendland); ib. iii. 27 (ii. 206). The [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] authorities more correctly interpreted Lev. xxiv. 15 seq., not of the mere utterance of the name, but of the use of the name of God in blaspheming God."</ref>

Various motives may have concurred to bring about the suppression of the name:

# An instinctive feeling that a proper name for God implicitly recognizes the existence of other gods may have had some influence; reverence and the fear lest the holy name should be profaned among the heathen.
# Desire to prevent abuse of the name in [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]]. If so, the secrecy had the opposite effect; the name of the God of the Jews was one of the great names, in magic, heathen as well as Jewish, and miraculous efficacy was attributed to the mere utterance of it.
# Avoiding risk of the Name being used as an angry [[Expletive attributive|expletive]], as reported in [[Leviticus]] 24:11 in the [[Bible]].

In the [[liturgy]] of the [[Temple]] the name was pronounced in the [[priest]]ly [[benediction]] (Num. vi. 27) after the regular daily sacrifice (in the [[synagogue]]s a substitute (probably Adonai) was used);<ref>Footnote #4 from page 311 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "''Siphre'', Num. f 39, 43; ''M. Sotak'', iii. 7; ''Sotah'', 38a. The tradition that the utterance of the name in the daily benedictions ceased with the death of Simeon the Just, two centuries or more before the Christian era, perhaps arose from a misunderstanding of Menahoth, 109b; in any case it cannot stand against the testimony of older and more authoritative texts.</ref> on the [[Yom Kippur|Day of Atonement]] the High Priest uttered the name ten times in his [[prayer]]s and benediction.

According to the [[Talmud]], in the last generations before the fall of [[Jerusalem]], however, it was pronounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in the chant of the priests.<ref>''[[Yoma]]'', 39b; ''[[Jerusalem Talmud|Jer.]] Yoma'',iii. 7; ''[[Kiddushin]]'', 71a." ([[:wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jehovah#cite note-3|cited after]] [[EB 1911]])</ref>

====In later Judaism====
After the destruction of the Temple (70 CE) the liturgical use of the name ceased, but the tradition was perpetuated in the schools of the [[rabbi]]s.<ref>Footnote #1 from page 312 of the 1911 E.B. reads:"R. Johannan (second half of the 3rd century), ''Kiddushin'', 71a."</ref> It was certainly known in [[Babylonia]] in the latter part of the 4th century.<ref>Footnote #2 from page 312 of the 1911 E.B. reads:"Kiddushin, ''l.c. = Pesahim'', 50a".</ref> Nor was the knowledge confined to these pious circles; the name continued to be employed by healers, [[exorcist]]s and magicians, and has been preserved in many places in magical papyri.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

The vehemence with which the utterance of the name is denounced in the [[Mishna]]—''He who pronounces the Name with its own letters has no part in the world to come!''<ref>Footnote #3 from page 312 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "''M. Sanhedrin'', x.I; Abba Saul, end of 2nd century."</ref>—suggests that this misuse of the name was not uncommon among Jews.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}} Modern observant [[Jews]] no longer voice the name {{lang|he|יהוה}} aloud. It is believed to be [[Names of god in judaism#Pronouncing the tetragrammaton|too sacred to be uttered]] and is often referred to as the 'Ineffable', 'Unutterable' or 'Distinctive Name'.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewfaq.org/name.htm |title=Judaism 101 on the Name of God |publisher=jewfaq.org}}</ref><ref>For example, see {{cite book |author=Saul Weiss and Joseph Dov Soloveitchik |url=http://books.google.com/?id=rmmRRNYXb7kC&pg=PA9&dq=YKVK |page=9 |title=Insights of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik |isbn=9780742544697 |date=2005-02 }} and {{cite book |author=Minna Rozen |title=Jewish Identity and Society in the 17th century |page=67 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Pt50fMlgKuMC&pg=PA67&dq=YKVK |isbn=9783161457708 |year=1992}}</ref>

====Among the Samaritans====
The [[Samaritan]]s, who otherwise shared the scruples of the Jews about the utterance of the name, seem to have used it in judicial oaths to the scandal of the rabbis.<ref>''[[Jerusalem Talmud|Jer.]] [[Sanhedrin]]'', x.I; R. Mana, 4th century (cited after [[EB 1911]]).</ref> (Their priests have preserved a liturgical pronunciation "Yahwe" or "Yahwa" to the present day.)<ref>Montgomery, ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', xxv. (1906), 49-51 (cited after [[EB 1911]])</ref> However, the Aramaic "Shema" (שמא) remains the everyday (including liturgical) usage of the name, akin to השם (Hebrew "HaShem").
<ref name="Stanley S. Seidner 1987"/>

====In Modern Judaism====
The new [[Jewish Publication Society]] [[Tanakh]] 1985 follows the traditional convention of translating the Divine Name as "the LORD" (in all caps). The [[Artscroll]] [[Tanakh]] translates the Divine Name as "HaShem" (literally, "The Name").

When the Divine Name is read during prayer, "Adonai" ("My Lord") is substituted. However, when practicing a prayer or referring to one, Orthodox Jews will say either "HaShem" or "AdoShem" instead of "Adonai". When speaking to another person "HaShem" is used.<ref name="Stanley S. Seidner 1987">Stanley S. Seidner,"HaShem: Uses through the Ages." Unpublished paper, Rabbinical Society Seminar, Los Angeles, CA,1987.</ref>

===In Christianity===
====Early Greek and Latin forms====
The writings of the [[Church Fathers]] contain several references to forms of the Tetragrammaton in Greek or Latin. It should be noted that the Greek form of the divine name, "Iao", is the equivalent of the Hebrew trigrammaton YHW.<ref>Bezalel Porten, ''Archives from Elephantine: The life of an ancient Jewish military colony'', 1968, University of California Press, pp. 105, 106.</ref>

The oldest complete [[Septuagint]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] Old Testament) versions, from around the 2nd century CE, consistently use {{polytonic|Κυριος}} (= "[[Lord]]"), where the Hebrew has YHWH, corresponding to substituting Adonay for YHWH in reading the original; in books written in Greek in this period (e.g., Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), as in the [[New Testament]], {{polytonic|Κυριος}} takes the place of the name of God. However, older fragments contain the name YHWH.<ref>The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology Volume 2, p. 512.</ref> In the [[Papyrus Rylands 458|P. Ryl. 458]] (perhaps the oldest extant [[Septuagint]] manuscript) there are blank spaces, leading some scholars to believe that the Tetragrammaton must have been written where these breaks or blank spaces are.<ref>Paul Kahle, The Cairo Geniza (Oxford:Basil Blackwell,1959) p. 222.</ref>

Greek fragment of Leviticus (26:2-16) discovered in the Dead Sea scrolls (Qumran) has ιαω [iao].

Also historian [[John the Lydian|Lydus]] (6th century) wrote: ''"The Roman [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varo]] [116-27 BCE] defining him [that is the Jewish God] says that he is called Iao in the Chaldean mysteries"'' (De Mensibus IV 53).

Van Cooten mentions that Iao is one of the "''specifically Jewish designations for God''" and "''the Aramaic papyri from the Jews at Elephantine show that 'Iao' is an original Jewish term''".<ref>Stern M., ''Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism'' (1974-84) 1:172; Schafer P., ''Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World'' (1997) 232; Cowley A., ''Aramaic Papyri of the 5th century'' (1923); Kraeling E.G., ''The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri: New Documents of the 5th century BCE from the Jewish Colony at Elephantine'' (1953)</ref><ref>Sufficient examination of the subject is available at Sean McDonough's ''YHWH at Patmos'' (1999), pp 116 to 122 and George van Kooten's ''The Revelation of the Name YHWH to Moses'' (2006), pp 114, 115, 126-136. It worths to mention a foundamental though aged source about the subject: Adolf Deissmann's ''[http://www.archive.org/details/biblestudiescont00deisrich Bible studies: Contributions chiefly from papyri and inscriptions to the history of the language, the literature, and the religion of Hellenistic Judaism and primitive Christianity]'' (1909), at chapter "Greek transcriptions of the Tetragrammaton".</ref>

====Patristic writings====
According to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] (1907) and B.D. Eerdmans:<ref>B.D. Eerdmans, The Name Jahu, O.T.S. V (1948) 1-29.</ref>
* [[Diodorus Siculus]] (1st century BCE) writes<ref>"Among the Jews Moses referred his laws to the god who is invoked as Iao (Gr. Ιαώ)." (Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica'' I, 94:2)</ref> {{polytonic|Ἰαῶ}} (Iao);
* [[Irenaeus]] (d. c. 202) reports<ref>Irenaeus, "[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]", II, xxxv, 3, in P. G., VII, col. 840.</ref> that the Gnostics formed a compound {{polytonic|Ἰαωθ}} (Iaoth) with the last syllable of [[Sabaoth]]. He also reports<ref>Irenaeus, "[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]", I, iv, 1, in P.G., VII, col. 481.</ref> that the [[Gnosticism|Valentinian heretics]] use {{polytonic|Ἰαῶ}} (Iao);
* [[Clement of Alexandria]] (d. c. 215)<ref>Clement, "Stromata", V, 6, in P.G., IX, col. 60.</ref> writes {{polytonic|Ἰαοὺ}} (Iaou)—see also below;
* [[Origen of Alexandria]] (d. c. 254),<ref>Origen, "In Joh.", II, 1, in P.G., XIV, col. 105.</ref> Iao;
* [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (d. c. 305) according to [[Eusebius]] (d. 339),<ref>[[Eusebius]], ''[[Praeparatio Evangelica]]'' I, ix, in P.G., XXI, col. 72 A; and also ibid. X, ix, in P.G., XXI, col. 808 B.</ref> {{polytonic|Ἰευώ}} (Ieuo);
* [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]] (d. 404), who was born in Palestine and spent a considerable part of his life there, gives<ref>Epiphanius, ''[[Panarion]]'', I, iii, 40, in P.G., XLI, col. 685.</ref> Ia and Iabe (one codex Iaue);
* (Pseudo-) [[Jerome]] (4th/5th century),<ref>"nomen Domini apud Hebraeos quatuor litterarum est, ''jod, he, vau, he'': quod proprie Dei vocabulum sonat: et legi potest JAHO, et Hebraei {{polytonic|ἄῤῥητον}}, id est, ineffabile opinatur." ("Breviarium in Psalmos. Psalm. viii.", in P.L., XXVI, col. 838 A). This work was traditionally attributed to [[Jerome]], but authenticity has been doubted or denied since modern times. But "now believed to be genuine and to be dated before CE 392" [[Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft|ZATW]] (W. de Gruyter, 1936. page 266)</ref> ''(tetragrammaton) can be read Iaho'';
* [[Theodoret]] (d. c. 457) writes {{polytonic|Ἰάω}} (Iao);<ref>"the word Nethinim means in Hebrew 'gift of Iao', that is the God who is" (Theodoret, "Quaest. in I Paral.", cap. ix, in P. G., LXXX, col. 805 C)</ref> he also reports<ref>Theodoret, "Ex. quaest.", xv, in P. G., LXXX, col. 244 and "Haeret. Fab.", V, iii, in P. G., LXXXIII, col. 460.</ref> that the [[Samaritans]] say {{polytonic|Ἰαβέ}} or {{polytonic|Ἰαβαί}} (both pronounced at that time /ja'vε/), while the Jews say {{polytonic|Ἀϊά}} (Aia).<ref>Footnote #8 from page 312 of the 1911 E.B. reads: "''{{polytonic|Aïα}}'' occurs also in the great magical papyrus of Paris, 1. 3020 (Wessely, Denkschrift. Wien. Akad., Phil. Hist. Kl., XXXVI. p. 120) and in the Leiden Papyrus, Xvii. 31."</ref> (The latter is probably not {{lang|he|יהוה}} but {{lang|he|אהיה}} Ehyeh = "I am " or "I will be", {{Bibleref2|Exod.|3:14}} which the Jews counted among the names of God.)
* [[James of Edessa]] (d. 708),<ref>cf. Lamy, "La science catholique", 1891, p. 196.</ref> Jehjeh;
* [[Jerome]] (d. 420)<ref>Jerome, "Ep. xxv ad Marcell.", in P. L., XXII, col. 429.</ref> speaks of certain ignorant Greek writers who transcribed the Hebrew Divine name {{lang|he|יהוה}} as {{Polytonic|ΠΙΠΙ}}.

=====Clement's Stromata=====
[[Clement of Alexandria]] writes in ''[[Stromata]]'' V, 6:34–35:

: {{polytonic|"Πάλιν τὸ παραπέτασμα τῆς εἰς τὰ ἅγια τῶν ἁγίων παρόδου, κίονες τέτταρες αὐτόθι, ἁγίας μήνυμα τετράδος διαθηκῶν παλαιῶν, ἀτὰρ καὶ τὸ τετράγραμμον ὄνομα τὸ μυστικόν, ὃ περιέκειντο οἷς μόνοις τὸ ἄδυτον βάσιμον ἦν· λέγεται δὲ '''Ἰαού''', ὃ μεθερμηνεύεται ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἐσόμενος. Καὶ μὴν καὶ καθʼ Ἕλληνας θεὸς τὸ ὄνομα τετράδα περιέχει γραμμάτων."}} ([http://books.google.gr/books?id=RSsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD+%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B1&source=bl&ots=O845wwgS_Z&sig=jTGtJJakU7eXefisaiAiQLbyiXI&hl=el&ei=FHQMS6L0Osee_gaIruSuBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CBsQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%20%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B1&f=false Reinhold Koltz] text)

The translation<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.vi.iv.v.vi.html
|title=ANF02. Fathers of the 2nd century: Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria, Chapter VI.—The Mystic Meaning of the Tabernacle and its Furniture.
|publisher=Christian Classics Ethereal Library
|accessdate=2010-09-27}}]</ref> of Clement's ''Stromata'' in Volume II of the classic Ante-Nicene Fathers series renders this as:

: "... Further, the mystic name of four letters which was affixed to those alone to whom the "adytum" was accessible, is called '''Jave''', which is interpreted, 'Who is and shall be.' The name of God, too [i.e., θεὸς], among the Greeks contains four letters."<ref>{{cite book
|editor= The Rev. Alexander Roberts, D.D, and James Donaldson, LL.D.
|title= The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. II: Fathers of the 2nd century |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.i.html
|accessdate= 2006–12–19
|edition=American reprint of the Edinburgh
|page=452
|chapter=VI. The Mystic Meaning of the Tabernacle and Its Furniture
|chapterurl=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.vi.iv.v.vi.html}}</ref>

Of Clement's ''Stromata'' there is only one surviving manuscript, the Codex L (Codex Laurentianus V 3), from the 11th century. Other sources are later copies of that ms. and a few dozen quotations from this work by other authors. For ''Stromata'' V,6:34, Codex L has {{polytonic|ἰαοὺ}}. The critical edition by Otto Stählin (1905)<ref>"''[http://www.archive.org/details/clemensalexandr00berlgoog Clemens Alexandrinus Werke], eds. Stählin. O. and Fruechtel. L. (Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte, 15), 3. Auflage, Berlin, 1960.</ref> gives the forms

: "Ἰαουέ Didymus Taurinensis de pronunc. divini nominis quatuor literarum (Parmae 1799) p. 32ff, {{polytonic|ἰαοὺ}} L, {{polytonic|ἰὰ οὐαὶ}} Nic., {{polytonic|ἰὰ οὐὲ}} Mon. 9.82 Reg. 1888 Taurin. III 50 (bei Did.), {{polytonic|ἰαοῦε}} Coisl. Seg. 308 Reg. 1825."

and has {{polytonic|Ἰαουε}} in the running text. The Additions and Corrections page gives a reference to an author who rejects the change of {{polytonic|ἰαοὺ}} into {{polytonic|Ἰαουε}}.<ref>Richard Ganschinietz, "Iao" in ''Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft'' 9.1:700.28.</ref>

Other editors give similar data. A ''{{lang|la|catena}}'' (Latin: chain) referred to by A. le Boulluec<ref>Clément d'Alexandrie. Stromate V. Tome I: Introduction, texte critique et index, par A. Le Boulluec, Traduction de † P. Voulet, S.J.; Tome II : Commentaire, bibliographie et index, par A. Le Boulluec, [[Sources Chrétiennes]] n° 278 et 279, Editions du Cerf, Paris 1981. (Tome I, pp. 80, 81).</ref> ("Coisl. 113 fol. 368v") and by [http://www.villagephotos.com/members/viewimage.asp?id_=14021882 Smith’s 1863 "A Dictionary of the Bible"] ("a catena to the [[Pentateuch]] in a MS. at [[Turin]]") is reported to have "{{polytonic|ια ουε}}".




====Christian translations into Greek and Latin====
The [[Septuagint]] (Greek translation) and [[Vulgate]] (Latin translation) use the word "Lord" ({{lang|el|κύριος}}, ''kyrios'', and {{lang|la|dominus}}, respectively).

====Christian Bible translations into English====
[[File:Tetragrammaton at 5th Chapel of the Palace of Versailles France.jpg|thumb|180px|Tetragrammaton at the 5th Chapel of the [[Palace of Versailles]], France. This example has the vowel points of "[[Elohim]]".]]
* The [[Jerusalem Bible|New Jerusalem Bible]] (1966) uses "Yahweh" exclusively.
* The [[Bible In Basic English]] (1949/1964) uses "Yahweh" eight times, including {{Bibleref2|Exod.|6:2}}.
* The [[New English Bible]] (NT 1961, OT 1970) generally uses the word "LORD" but uses "JEHOVAH" several times.<ref>[[Jehovah#Usage in English|Usage in English]]</ref> For examples of both forms, see Exodus Chapter 3 and footnote to verse 15.
* The [[Amplified Bible]] (1954/1987). At {{Bibleref2|Exod.|6:3}} the AB says "but by My name the Lord [Yahweh--the redemptive name of God] I did not make Myself known to them."
* [[The Living Bible]] (1971). "Jehovah" or "Lord".<ref>The Living Bible, "Jehovah" or "Lord" per text or footnotes. e.g. Genesis 7:16; 8:21; Exodus 3:15.</ref>
* The [[Young's Literal Translation]] (Version) – "Jehovah" since Genesis 2:4
* The [[Holman Christian Standard Bible]] (1999/2002) uses "Yahweh" over 50 times, including {{Bibleref2|Exod.|6:2}}.
* The [[World English Bible]] (WEB) [a Public Domain work with no copyright] uses "Yahweh" some 6837 times.
* The [[New Living Translation]] (1996/2004) uses "Yahweh" eight times{{Verify source|date=January 2010}}, including {{Bibleref2|Exod.|6:2}}. The Preface of the New Living Translation: Second Edition says that in a few cases they have used the name Yahweh (for example 3:15; 6:2–3).
* Rotherham's [[Emphasized Bible]] retains "Yahweh" throughout the Old Testament.
* The [[Anchor Bible]] retains "Yahweh" throughout the Old Testament.
* The [[King James Version]]. Rendered in seven instances as "Jehovah", i.e. four times as the name of God, {{Bibleref2|Exod.|6:3}}; [[Psalm 83]]:18; Isa 12:2; 26:4, and three times where it is included in Hebrew place-names e.g. "Jehovah-jireh" -Gen 22:14. (See also Ex 17:15; Judges 6:24)
** Note: Elsewhere in the KJV, "LORD" is generally used. But in verses such as Gen 15:2; 28:13, Psalm 71:5, Amos 1:8, 9:5 etc. where this practice would result in ‘Lord LORD’ (Hebrew: ''Adonay YHWH'') or ‘LORD Lord’ (''YHWH Adonay'') the KJV translates the Hebrew text as ‘Lord GOD’ or ‘LORD God’.
* The [[American Standard Version]] uses "Jehovah".
* The [[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures|New World Translation]] uses Jehovah over 7,000 times in translations of both the Hebrew and Greek scriptures.

====Translations of the New Testament into Hebrew====
* [[Franz Delitzsch|Delitzsch's]] translation of the New Testament into Hebrew (1877) frequently uses the tetragrammaton, i.e. Hebrew ({{lang|he|יְהֹוָה}}), particularly in verses where the New Testament quotes or makes reference to Old Testament texts.

====Tetragrammaton in the New Testament====
{{Merge to|Sacred Name Bibles|discuss=Talk:Tetragrammaton#Merger proposal|date=May 2011}}
{{main|Tetragrammaton in the New Testament}}
Since the Tetragrammaton does not appear in the Greek manuscripts of the [[New Testament]], virtually all translations refrain from inserting it into the English. The vast majority of New Testament translations therefore render the Greek ''kyrios'' as "lord" and ''theos'' as "God". Nevertheless, the [[Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition]] inserts the name ''Yahweh'' in the New Testament, while the [[New World Translation]] inserts the name ''Jehovah'' in the New Testament.

====Catholic Church====
[[File:BASILICA OF ST LOUIS KING OF FRANCE MISSOURI USA Near the Gateway Arch TETRAGRAMMATON.jpg|thumb|right|180px|The Tetragrammaton on the [[Tympanum (architecture)|Tympanum]] of the Roman Catholic [[Basilica of St. Louis, King of France]] in Missouri]]
In the [[Catholic Church]], the first edition of the official Vatican ''[[Nova Vulgata]] Bibliorum Sacrorum'', published in 1979, used the form ''Iahveh'' for rendering the Tetragrammaton.<ref>"Dixítque íterum Deus ad Móysen: «Hæc dices fíliis Israel: Iahveh (Qui est), Deus patrum vestrórum, Deus Abraham, Deus Isaac et Deus Iacob misit me ad vos; hoc nomen mihi est in ætérnum, et hoc memoriále meum in generatiónem et generatiónem." (Exodus 3:15).</ref> Later editions of this version replaced "Iahveh" with "Dominus", in keeping with a long-standing Catholic tradition of avoiding direct usage of the Ineffable Name.

On August 8, 2008, Bishop [[Arthur J. Serratelli]], chairman of the American bishops' "Committee on Divine Worship", announced a new directive from the [[Holy See|Vatican]] regarding the use of the name of ''God'' in the sacred liturgy. "Specifically, the word 'Yahweh' may no longer be 'used or pronounced' in songs and prayers during liturgical celebrations."<ref>{{cite web
|title = CNS STORY: No 'Yahweh' in songs, prayers at Catholic Masses, Vatican rules
|accessdate = 2009–07–29
|url = http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0804119.htm}}</ref> In fact, for most of the Church's 2,000-year history use of the name was prohibited in public worship, out of respect for the Divine Name, according to Catholic tradition. After [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962–65), some songs and hymns had begun to use the Tetragrammaton, which caused the Vatican to issue a clarification that the Divine Name was not to be used. Hymnals with these hymns have since inserted the word "Lord God" or other two-syllable alternatives in the place of the Tetragrammaton.

==See also==
* [[Jehovah]]
* [[Papyrus Fouad 266]]
* [[Psalm 83]]
* [[Tetragrammaton in the New Testament]]
* [[Yahweh]], [[Jah]] or ([[Names of God in Judaism#Yah|Yah]])

==References==
*{{cite book|last=van der Toorn|first=Karel|title=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=New York|year=1995|isbn=0-80282-491-9}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons-inline}}
*{{Cite EB1911|W1EC=1|wstitle=Tetragrammaton}}

[[Category:Yahweh]]
[[Category:Tetragrammaton| ]]
[[Category:Greek loanwords]]
[[Category:Judaic inscriptions]]

Gandalf (musician)

2011-12-13T06:02:23Z

Lidewij:

'''Gandalf''' (born '''Heinz Strobl''', born 1952) is the name used by a [[New Age music|New Age]] composer from [[Austria]]. He plays a wide variety of instruments including guitars, keyboards, synthesizers and sitars. He includes electronic sounds into his music. His music includes influences from music around the world. He released his first album ''Journey to an Imaginary Land'' on March 17, 1981, and his second ''Visions'' almost one year later on March 16, 1982. He has become one of Austria's most accomplished international musicians.

==Discography==
*1981: ''Journey to an Imaginary Land''
*1982: ''Visions''
*1983: ''To Another Horizon''
*1983: ''More Than Just a Seagull''
*1983: ''Magic Theatre''
*1984: ''Tale from a Long Forgotten Kingdom''
*1986: ''The Shining (with Galadriel)''
*1987: ''The Universal Play''
*1987: ''From Source to Sea''
*1987: ''Fantasia – The Best of''
*1989: ''Invisible Power''
*1990: ''Labyrinth (Soundtrack)''
*1990: ''Symphonic Landscapes''
*1991: ''Reflection (1986–1990)''
*1992: ''Gallery of Dreams''
*1992: ''The Stones of Wisdom''
*1994: ''To Our Children's Children''
*1994: ''Colours of the Earth''
*1995: ''Echoes from Ancient Dreams''
*1996: ''Gates to Secret Realities''
*1997: ''Barakaya: Trees Water Life''
*1999: ''Into the Light''
*1999: ''Samsara''
*2000: ''Visions 2001''
*2002: ''The Fountain of Secrets''
*2003: ''Between Earth and Sky''
*2004: ''[[Colors of a New Dawn]]''
*2005: ''Der Prophet''
*2006: ''Sacred River''
*2007: ''Lotus Land''
*2008: ''Live in Vienna''
*2009: ''Sanctuary''
*2011: ''Earthsong and Stardance''

==External links==
*[http://www.gandalf.at/index.php Official Webpage for Gandalf]
*{{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p2569|label=Gandalf}}
*{{Musicbrainz artist|id=0e49cfc8-6c12-426d-8985-5005f9256e18|name=Gandalf}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Gandalf
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = December 4, 1952
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gandalf}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:New Age musicians]]
[[Category:Austrian composers]]
[[Category:Living people]]

[[nl:Gandalf (muzikant)]]

Research on meditation

2011-12-08T20:12:44Z

Lidewij:

Research on the processes and effects of [[meditation]] is a growing subfield of neurological research.<ref>There has been a dramatic increase in the past 10 or 15 years or so of studies on the impact of meditation upon one's health. Translator for The Dalai Lama, interviewed in a video [http://ccare.stanford.edu/node/85 here]</ref><ref name="investigating the mind">http://www.investigatingthemind.org/ "...the power of our non-invasive technologies have made it possible to investigate the nature of cognition and emotion in the brain as never before..." Mind and Life Institute summary of Investigating the Mind 2005 meetings between The Dalai Lama and scientists</ref><ref>Venkatesh S, Raju TR, Shivani Y, Tompkins G, Meti BL. (1997) ''A study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non-meditative states. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.'' 1997 Apr;41(2): 149–53. [[PubMed]] Abstract PMID 9142560</ref><ref>Peng CK, Mietus JE, Liu Y, Khalsa G, Douglas PS, Benson H, Goldberger AL. (1999) ''Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques. Int J Cardiol.'' 1999 Jul 31;70(2):101–7. [[PubMed]] Abstract PMID 10454297</ref><ref name = Lazar>Lazar, S.W.; Bush, G.; Gollub, R. L.; Fricchione, G. L.; Khalsa, G.; Benson, H. ''Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation" ''NeuroReport'': Volume 11(7) 15 May 2000 pp. 1581–1585 [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 10841380</ref><ref>Carlson LE, Ursuliak Z, Goodey E, Angen M, Speca M. (2001) ''The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up''. Support Care Cancer. 2001 Mar;9(2):112-23.[[PubMed]] abstract PMID 11305069</ref> Modern scientific techniques and instruments, such as [[fMRI]] and [[EEG]], are being used to study the body of people who've engaged in meditation in order to determine both how the process of meditation works and also the effects of meditation on the practitioners.<ref name="investigating the mind" /><ref>mindandlife.org website for the Mind and Life Institute which governs the meetings between H.H. The Dalai Lama and leading Western scientists including one such meeting on the topic of neuroplasticity</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| last = Davidson
| first = Richard J.
| coauthors = [[Jon Kabat-Zinn|Kabat-Zinn]] J, Schumacher J, Rosenkranz M, Muller D, Santorelli SF, Urbanowski F, Harrington A, Bonus K, Sheridan JF.
| title = Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation
| journal = Psychosomatic Medicine
| volume = 65
| issue = 4
| pages = 564–570
|date=2003 Jul-Aug
| pmid = 12883106
| doi = 10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3
| authorlink = Richard Davidson }}</ref><ref>Physiological Effects of Transcendental Meditation by Wallace @ http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/167/3926/1751 published in 1970!</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| last = Kabat-Zinn
| first = Jon
| coauthors = Lipworth L, Burney R.
| title = The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain
| journal = Journal of Behavioral Medicine
| volume = 8
| issue = 2
| pages = 163–190
|year=1985
| pmid = 3897551
| doi = 10.1007/BF00845519}}</ref> Meditation [[neuroplasticity|changes the brain]] and the body.<ref>http://psyphz.psych.wisc.edu/web/pubs/2008/buddha_brain_IEEE.pdf Buddha’s Brain:
Neuroplasticity and Meditation by Richard Davidson and Antoine Lutz</ref> These studies have showed substantial bodily changes as a consequence of regular meditative practice, including growth in regions of the brain activated according to the style of meditation. Meditation is similar to learning other skills like how to ride a bike or play an instrument.<ref>"Train Your Mind Change Your Brain" by Sharon Begley pages 229-242, in the chapter "Transforming the Emotional Mind"</ref> Through repeated practice meditation leads to an increase in qualities such as love and empathy, ability to pay attention, greater relaxation, and so on.

Methodological concerns have been raised about the studies done on meditation.<ref name="NCCAM 2008"/> Since the 1950s nearly 1,000 studies and still very little is known about this field.<ref>"Empirical research
on meditation started in the 1950s, and as much as 1,0 0 0 publications on meditationalready exist.Despite such a high numberof scientiﬁc reports and inspiring theoreticalproposals (Austin, 19 9 8; Shapiro & Walsh,1984; Varela, Thompson, & Rosch, 19 9 1;Wallace, 2 0 0 3 ; West, 1987), one still needsto admit that little is known about the neurophysiological processes involved in meditation and about its possible long-termimpact on the brain. The lack of statistical evidence, control populations and rigorof many of the early studies; the heterogeneity of the studied meditative states;and the difﬁculty incontrolling the degreeof expertise of practitioners can in partaccount for the limited contributions madeby neuroscience-oriented research on meditation." - "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" by Lutz, Dunne and Davidson</ref>

Meditation has historically been practiced within religious traditions especially by monks. Today much of what is considered meditation in the West is secular in nature, for instance [[Mindfulness (psychology)|mindfulness-based programs]].<ref>The following was taken from [[MBSR]]... "Jon Kabat-Zinn has said that his program has nothing at all to do with Buddhism, it is not spiritually based, and is therefore open to everyone no matter what life circumstances they are in.[reference-> In this video Jon Kabat-Zinn can be seen giving a speech at Google Headquarters about mindfulness, including the benefits shown by scientific study, the practice and principles of mindfulness, and how it relates to modern life in general http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSU8ftmmhmw Mindfulness-based stress] MBSR is practiced by those old and young, sick and healthy, professionals and monks alike. Jon Kabat-Zinn has also said that the principles of mindfulness, on which MBSR is based, have been most [[Mindfulness (Buddhism)|clearly articulated]] by those in [[Buddhism|Buddhist traditions]].[reference-> In this video Jon Kabat-Zinn can be seen giving a speech at Google Headquarters about mindfulness, including the benefits shown by scientific study, the practice and principles of mindfulness, and how it relates to modern life in general http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSU8ftmmhmw Mindfulness-based stress][reference->Jon also has said this in his 2 CD talk called "Mindfulness for Beginners"]</ref> Today mindfulness-based meditative practices have become popular within the wider medical and psychological Western community. For more information see [[Mindfulness (psychology)]] and [[Buddhism and psychology]].

==Western Therapeutic Use==
Meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of [[stress (medicine)|stress]] and [[Pain and nociception|pain]] reduction. As a method of stress reduction, meditation has been used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness to reduce complications associated with increased stress that include depressed [[immune systems]]. There is growing agreement in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, and there is a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area. There are now several mainstream health care programs which aid those, both sick and [[Positive psychology|healthy]], in promoting their inner well-being, especially those [[Mindfulness (psychology)|mindfulness based programs]].

===Mindfulness-based stress reduction===
{{See also|Mindfulness (psychology)|Mindfulness-based stress reduction}}
A 2003 [[meta-analysis]] found that mindfulness-based stress reduction, which involves continuous awareness of consciousness, without seeking to censor thoughts, concluded that the form of meditation may be broadly useful for individuals attempting to cope with clinical and nonclinical problems. Diagnoses for which MBSR was found to be helpful included [[chronic pain]], [[fibromyalgia]], [[cancer]] patients and [[coronary artery disease]]. Improvements were noted for both physical and mental health measures.<ref name="MBSR 2003 meta-analysis">{{cite pmid | 15256293 }}</ref>

==Flow==
[[Mindfulness (psychology)|Mindfulness]] meditation, [[anapanasati]], and related techniques, are intended to train attention for the sake of provoking insight. A wider, more flexible attention span makes it easier to be aware of a situation, easier to be objective in emotionally or morally difficult situations, and easier to achieve a state of responsive, creative awareness or "[[Flow (psychology)|flow]]".<ref>.ref name="flow">[http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol3Iss1/Commentary.htm Commentary: In the Zone: A Biobehavioral Theory of the Flow Experience]</ref> Research from Harvard medical school also shows that during meditation, physiological signals show that there is a decrease in respiration and increase in heart rate and blood oxygen saturation levels.<ref>.ref name="flow">[http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/~lazar/Lazar_Neuroreport_00.pdf Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation]</ref>

==Meditation and stress relief==
===Sympathetic system activation===
The human nervous system is composed of a parasympathetic system and a sympathetic system, dealing with relaxation and arousal, respectively. The [[National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health (NIH)]] has written, "It is thought that some types of meditation might work by reducing activity in the [[sympathetic nervous system]] and increasing activity in the [[parasympathetic nervous system]]," or equivalently, that meditation produces a reduction in arousal and an increase in relaxation.

===Goleman: Amygdala and pre-frontal cortex===
One theory, presented by [[Daniel Goleman]] & Tara Bennett-Goleman<ref>Bennett-Goleman, Tara, 2001. ''Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind can Heal the Heart,'' Harmony, 1st Edition: Jan 9, 2001, ISBN 978-0609607527</ref> suggests that meditation{{Clarify|date=November 2010|date=July 2010}} works because of the relationship between the [[amygdala]] and the [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref name="daniel">[http://www.eiconsortium.org/research/an_ei_based_theory_of_performance.pdf The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace, Chapter Three]</ref> In very simple terms, the amygdala is the part of the brain that decides if we should get angry or anxious (among other things), and the pre-frontal cortex is the part that makes us stop and think about things (it is also known as the inhibitory centre). The amygdala first receives emotional signals and sends them to the prefrontal cortex where planning occurs.

The prefrontal cortex is very good at analyzing and planning, but it takes a long time to make decisions. The amygdala, on the other hand, is simpler (and older <ref name="sagan">Sagan, Carl. The Dragons of Eden; Random House, New York. 1977</ref> in evolutionary terms). It makes rapid judgments about a situation and has a powerful effect on our emotions and behaviour, linked to survival needs. For example, if a human sees a [[lion]] leaping out at them, the amygdala will trigger a [[fight or flight]] response long before the prefrontal cortex responds.

But in making snap judgments, our amygdalas are prone to error because they evolved in times that are so different from our modern ones. Today there are essentially no predators to fight or flee from and yet still the neural circuitry that evolved to deal with them is in place. Today, social conflicts are far more common than encounters with predators, and a basically harmless but emotionally charged situation can trigger uncontrollable fear or anger — leading to conflict, anxiety, and stress.<ref name="stress">[http://www.helpguide.org/mental/social_anxiety_support_symptom_causes_treatment.htm#social_anxiety_symptoms Social Anxiety and Social Phobia:Symptoms, Treatment and Support]</ref>

===The Relaxation Response===
Dr. [[Herbert Benson]] of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with [[Harvard University]] and several [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response."<ref>Benson, H., "The relaxation response: therapeutic effect," ''Science''. 1997 Dec 5;278(5344):1694-5. PMID 9411784</ref> The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the [[Himalaya]]n Mountains.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

==Insight meditation==
{{Main|Insight_meditation#Scientific_studies}}
Studies done by Yale, Harvard, Massachusetts General Hospital have shown that meditation increases gray matter in the brain and slows down the deterioration of the brain as a part of the natural aging process.

The experiment included 20 individuals with intensive Buddhist "insight meditation" training and 15 who did not meditate. The brain scan revealed that those who meditated have an increased thickness of gray matter in parts of the brain that are responsible for attention and processing sensory input. Some of the participants meditated for 40 minutes a day while others had been doing it for years. The results showed that the change in brain thickness depended upon the amount of time spent in meditation. The increase in thickness ranged between .004 and .008 inches (3.175 x 10−6m - 6.35 x 10 −6m).<ref>[http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2006/02/meditation-found-to-increase-brain-size/ Harvard University Gazette: Meditation found to increase brain size]</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/11/051110215950.htm Meditation Associated With Increased Grey Matter In The Brain]</ref><ref>http://nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/~lazar/ Meditation Research from the lab of Sara Lazar</ref><ref>Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness by Sara W. Lazar et al. 2005 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=2473855192046828991&hl=en&as_sdt=0,10&as_vis=1</ref>

==Kundalini Yoga meditation==
{{Main|Kundalini_yoga#Medical_research}}
There have been some preliminary studies done on some of the many types of meditation found within the branch of Yoga known as Kundalini. One study showed the cooling of meditators hands as they did their thing and another study showed some relaxation while meditators payed attention to the breaths.

==Grey and White Matter==
A study involving the participation of a group of colleges students, who were asked to use a meditation technique called integrative body-mind training, concluded that "meditating may improve the integrity and efficiency of certain connections in the brain" through an increase in their number and robustness<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arstechnica.com/science/news/2010/08/meditation-boosts-part-of-brain-where-add-addictions-reside.ars|title=Meditation boosts part of brain where ADD, addictions reside|publisher=[[Ars Technica]]|accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> Brain scans showed strong [[white matter]] changes in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100816155000.htm|title=|title=Integrative body-mind training (IBMT) meditation found to boost brain connectivity|publisher=[[ScienceDaily]]|accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref>

Dr. James Austin, a neurophysiologist at the [[University of Colorado Health Sciences Center|University of Colorado]], reported that [[Yoga#Yoga_and_Zen|meditation in Zen]] "rewires the circuitry" of the brain in his book ''[[Zen and the Brain]]'' (Austin, 1999). This has been confirmed using [[functional MRI]] imaging, a brain scanning technique that measures blood flow in the brain. {{Citation needed|reason=please give a reliable source for this assertion. It'd be interesting to read more about it too, or what if it's not enough to draw the conclusion given here?|date=October 2009}}

==Theoria==
Fifteen [[Carmelite nuns]] came from the monastery to the laboratory to enter a [[MRI|fMRI]] machine whilst meditating, allowing scientists there to scan their brains using fMRI while they were in a state known as Unio Mystica (and also [[Theoria]]).<ref name=beauregard06>{{cite journal
|author=M. Beauregard & V. Paquette
|year=2006
|title=Neural correlates of a mystical experience in [[Carmelite nuns]]
|journal=[[Neuroscience Letters]]
|publisher=Elsevier
|volume=405
|issue=3
|pages=186–90
|url= |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2006.06.060
|issn=0304-3940
|pmid=16872743}}</ref> The results showed that far-flung parts of the brain were recruited in the sustaining of this [[Mysticism|mystical]] union with God.<ref name=beauregard06/>

==Meditation and EEG==
[[Electroencephalography|Electroencephalograph]] (EEG) recordings of skilled meditators showed a significant rise in [[gamma wave]] activity in the 80 to 120 Hz range during meditation. There was also a rise in the range of 25 to 42 Hz. These meditators had 10 to 40 years of training in Buddhist-based mental{{Clarify|July 2010|date=July 2010}} training. EEG done on meditators who had received recent training demonstrated considerably less rise.<ref name="Lutz">
{{cite web
| last = Lutz
| first = Antoine
| title = Breakthrough study on EEG of meditation
| url = http://www.quantumconsciousness.org/EEGmeditation.htm
| accessdate = 2006-08-14 }}
</ref>

The experienced meditators also showed increased gamma activity while at rest and not meditating.<ref name="Lutz"/>

During meditation there is a modest increase in slow alpha or theta wave EEG activity.<ref name="Lutz"/><ref>
{{cite web
| last = Bhattathiry
| first = M.P.
| title = Neurophysiology of Meditation
| url = http://1stholistic.com/Meditation/hol_meditation_neurophysiology-of-meditation.htm
| accessdate = 2006-08-14 }}
</ref>

Chang and Lo found different results, explicable perhaps by the fact they show no sign of even having tested for gamma.<ref name="Chang">
{{cite web
| last = Chang
| first = Kanf-Ming
| title = Meditation EEG Interpretation based on novel fuzzy-merging strategies and wavelet features
| date = 2005-07-15
| url = http://bme.ntu.edu.tw/abc/17.4/17-4-2.pdf
| accessdate = 2006-08-14 }}
</ref> First they classify five patterns in meditation based on the normal four frequency ranges (delta < 4 Hz, theta 4 to <8 Hz, alpha 8 to 13 Hz, and beta >13 Hz). The five patterns they found were:
:1) delta
:2) delta + theta
:3) theta + slow alpha
:4) high-amplitude alpha
:5) amplitude suppressed ("silent and almost flat")
They found pattern #5 unique and characterized by:
:1) extremely low power (significant suppression of EEG amplitude)
:2) corresponding temporal patterns with no particular EEG rhythm
:3) no dominating peak in the spectral distribution

They had collected EEG patterns from more than 50 meditators over the prior five years. Five meditation EEG scenarios are then described. They further state that most meditation is dominated by alpha waves. They found delta and theta waves occurred occasionally, sometimes while people fell asleep and sometimes not. In particular they found the amplitude suppressed pattern correlated with "the feeling of blessings."

O Nuallain,Sean (2009)
<ref name="O'Nuallain">
{{cite web
| last = O'Nuallain
| first = Sean
| title = Zero Power and Selflessness: What Meditation and Conscious Perception Have in Common
| url = https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=10068
| accessdate = 2009-05-30 }}
</ref>
in Cognitive Sciences 4(2), is the first to interrelate the work on synchronized gamma in consciousness with the well-attested work on gamma in meditation in an experimental context. It adduces experimental and simulated data to show that what both have in common is the ability to put the brain into a state in which it is maximally sensitive and consumes power at a lower (or even zero) rate, briefly. It is argued that this may correspond to a “selfless” state and the more typical non-zero state, in which gamma is not so prominent, corresponds to a state of empirical self. Thus, the “zero power” in the title refers not only to the power spectrum of the brain as measured by the [[Hilbert transform]], but also to a psychological state of personal renunciation.

== Meditation and Perception ==
Studies have shown that meditation has both short-term and long-term effects on various perceptual faculties.

In 1984, Brown ''et al.'' conducted a study that measured the absolute threshold of perception for light stimulus duration in practitioners and non-practitioners of mindfulness meditation. The results showed that meditators have a significantly lower detection threshold for light stimuli of short duration.<ref>Brown, Daniel, et al. "Differences in Visual Sensitivity Among Mindfulness Meditators and Non-Meditators". Perceptual and Motor Skills 1984: 727-733.</ref>

In 2000, Tloczynski ''et al.'' studied the perception of visual illusions (the [[Müller-Lyer Illusion]] and the [[Poggendorff Illusion]]) by zen masters, novice meditators, and non-meditators. There were no statistically significant effects found for the Müller-Lyer illusion, however, there were for the Poggendorff. The zen masters experienced a statistically significant reduction in initial illusion (measured as error in millimeters) and a lower decrement in illusion for subsequent trials.<ref>Tloczynski, Joseph, et al., "Perception of Visual Illusions by Novice and Longer-Term Meditators". Perceptual and Motor Skills 2000: 1021-1027.</ref>

The theory of mechanism behind the changes in perception that accompany mindfulness meditation is described thus by Tloczynski:

<blockquote>“A person who meditates consequently perceives objects more as directly experienced stimuli and less as concepts… With the removal or minimization of cognitive stimuli and generally increasing awareness, meditation can therefore influence both the quality (accuracy) and quantity (detection) of perception.”{{Cite quote|date=November 2008}}</blockquote>

Brown also points to this as a possible explanation of the phenomenon: “[the higher rate of detection of single light flashes] involves quieting some of the higher mental processes which normally obstruct the perception of subtle events.” In other words, the practice may temporarily or permanently alter some of the top-down processing involved in filtering subtle events usually deemed noise by the perceptual filters.

==Adverse effects==
The following is an official statement from the [[Federal government of the United States|US government]]-run [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]]:
<blockquote>Meditation is considered to be safe for healthy people. There have been rare reports that meditation could cause or worsen symptoms in people who have certain psychiatric problems, but this question has not been fully researched. People with physical limitations may not be able to participate in certain meditative practices involving physical movement. Individuals with existing mental or physical health conditions should speak with their health care providers prior to starting a meditative practice and make their meditation instructor aware of their condition.<ref name="NCAAM overview" /></blockquote>

Both positive rewards and potential benefits of meditation have been noted in academic literature. Adverse effects have been reported,<ref>From a clinical study of twenty-seven long term meditators, Shapiro found that subjects reported significantly more positive effects than negative from meditation. However, of the twenty-seven subjects, seventeen (62.9%) reported at least one adverse effect, and two (7.4%) suffered profound adverse effects. Among these we find: ''relaxation-induced anxiety and panic; paradoxical increases in tension; less motivation in life; boredom; pain; impaired reality testing; confusion and disorientation; feeling 'spaced out'; depression; increased negativity; being more judgmental; and, ironically, feeling addicted to meditation'' Shapiro 1992, cited in Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto and Holmes, Jeremy. ''Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy.'' International Journal of Psychotherapy, Mar 2000, Vol. 5 Issue 1, p49, 10p</ref> and may, in some cases, be the result of "improper use of meditation".<ref name="Turner, Robert P. Page 440">Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. ''Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1995; Vol.183, No. 7 435-444. Page 440.</ref> The NIH advises prospective meditators to "ask about the training and experience of the meditation instructor... [they] are considering."<ref name="NCAAM overview" />

[[Kundalini syndrome]] is a claimed adverse effect from practicing [[Kundalini Yoga]].

As with any practice, meditation may also be used to avoid facing ongoing problems or emerging crises in the meditator's life. In such situations, it may be helpful to apply [[Mindfulness (psychology)|mindful attitudes]] acquired in meditation while actively engaging with current problems.<ref>Hayes, 1999, chap. 3; Metzner, 2005</ref> According to the [[National Institute of Health|NIH]], meditation should not be used as a replacement for conventional health care or as a reason to postpone seeing a doctor.<ref name="NCAAM overview">Meditation: An Introduction on the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine's webpage, NCAAM is a subdivision of NIH. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm#meditation</ref>

== Research methodologies ==

[[Image:Meditation&BP.jpg|thumb|300px|A comparison of the effect of various meditation techniques on systolic [[blood pressure]].<ref>Ospina p.130</ref>]]

In June, 2007 the United States [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] (NCCAM) published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research, conducted by researchers at the [[University of Alberta]] Evidence-based Practice Center. The report reviewed 813 studies involving five broad categories of meditation: [[mantra]] meditation, [[Mindfulness (Buddhism)|mindfulness meditation]], [[yoga]], [[T'ai chi ch'uan|T'ai chi]], and [[Qigong]], and included all studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to [[hypertension]], [[cardiovascular disease]], and [[substance abuse]].

The report concluded, "Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence. Future research on meditation practices must be more rigorous in the design and execution of studies and in the analysis and reporting of results." (p. 6) It noted that there is no theoretical explanation of health effects from meditation common to all meditation techniques.<ref>Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP. [http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf "Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research"]. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 155. (Prepared by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-02-0023.) AHRQ Publication No. 07-E010. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. June 2007.</ref>

A further analysis of this data set in 2008 reaffirmed the weaknesses of the research, finding that "Most clinical trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to [[validity]] in every major quality domain assessed". This was the conclusion despite a [[statistically significant]] increase in quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956-2005. Of the 400 clinical studies, 10% were found to be good quality. A call was made for rigorous study of meditation.<ref name="NCCAM 2008">{{cite journal |author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality |journal=J Altern Complement Med |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1199–213 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19123875 |doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0307 |url=}}</ref> These authors also noted that this finding is not unique to the area of meditation research and that the quality of reporting is a frequent problem in other areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) research and related therapy research domains.

In 2006 [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine|NCCAM]] revised their definition of meditation, emphasizing the experience of the “suspension of thought activity". This definition led to the possibility of comparing mental silence oriented meditation with resting alone and studies have found significant physiological differences between the two.<ref name="Manocha et al">Manocha R, Black D, Ryan J, Stough C, Spiro D, [http://www.researchingmeditation.org/blog/category/meditation/sahaja-yoga-meditation] "This study demonstrates a skin temperature reduction on the palms of the hands during the experience of mental silence, arising as a result of a single 10 minute session of Sahaja yoga meditation." [Changing Definitions of Meditation: Physiological Corollorary, Journal of the International Society of Life Sciences, Vol 28 (1), Mar 2010]</ref> It has been found that all approaches to meditation can achieve some non-specific benefits however the mental silence approach may be associated with additional specific benefits which are clinically beneficial.<ref name="Mind_emptiness">{{cite web | last = Manocha | first = Ramesh | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Meditation, mindfulness and mind-emptiness | work = | publisher = Acta Neuropsychiatrica | date = 2011-01-05 | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1601-5215.2010.00519.x/full#b6 | format = [[etext]] | doi = 10.1111/j.1601-5215.2010.00519.x | accessdate = 2011-07-26}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Meditation]]
* [[Buddhist meditation]]
* [[Transcendental Meditation research]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/tp/medittp.htm Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research] Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality

{{DEFAULTSORT:Research On Meditation}}
[[Category:Mind-body interventions]]
[[Category:Meditation]]
[[Category:Concepts in alternative medicine]]

Transcendental Meditation research

2011-12-08T20:01:08Z

Lidewij: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transcendental_Meditation_research&oldid=464798116

Practitioners of the [[Transcendental Meditation technique]] (TM) have claimed that the technique is more effective than other [[meditation]] practices.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Transcendental Meditation program|url=http://www.maharishi.ca/10-facts.php|work=TM.org|accessdate=27 August 2011|quote=The Transcendental Meditation technique is unlike any other form of meditation or self-development—in practice and results. The technique is distinguished by its naturalness, effortlessness and profound effectiveness.}}</ref> Independent [[systematic reviews]] have not found health benefits for the Transcendental Meditation technique beyond [[Relaxation technique|relaxation]] or [[health education]].<ref name=Ospina>{{cite journal|last1=Ospina|first1= MB.|last2=Bond|first2=K.|last3 =Karkhaneh |first3 =M. |last4 =Tjosvold |first4 =L. |last5 =Vandermeer |first5 =B. |last6 =Liang |first6 =Y. |last7 =Bialy |first7 =L. |last8 =Hooton |first8 =N. |last9 =Buscemi |first9 =N. |title =Meditation practices for health: state of the research|journal =Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |issue = 155 |pages =1–263 |month = June |year =2007 |pmid = 17764203|url= http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf|page=4 |quote=A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Krisanaprakornkit | first1 = T. | last2 = Ngamjarus | first2 = C. | last3 = Witoonchart | first3 = C. | last4 = Piyavhatkul | first4 = N. |title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=6 |issue= 6|pages=CD006507 |year=2010 |pmid=20556767 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 |quote =As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias, we are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy for ADHD.|editor1-last = Krisanaprakornkit|editor1-first = Thawatchai}}</ref><ref name=Cochrane06>{{Cite journal|last1 =Krisanaprakornkit | first1 = T. | last2 = Krisanaprakornkit | first2 = W. | last3 = Piyavhatkul | first3 = N. | last4 = Laopaiboon | first4 = M. |title=Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=1 |pages=CD004998 |year=2006 |pmid=16437509 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2 |quote=The small number of studies included in this review do not permit any conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Transcendental meditation is comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety|editor1-last =Krisanaprakornkit|editor1-first =Thawatchai}}</ref> It is difficult to determine definitive effects of "meditation practices in healthcare" as the quality of research has design limitations and a lack of [[methodological rigor]].<ref name=Cochrane06/><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |volume=|issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |doi= |url= |ref=harv |quote=Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N |title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=6 |issue= 6|pages=CD006507 |year=2010 |pmid=20556767 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 |url= |quote =As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias|editor1-last=Krisanaprakornkit|editor1-first=Thawatchai}}</ref> Part of this difficulty is because many studies where conducted by researchers with connection to the TM organization, and where conducted on subjects with a favorable opinion of TM.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=2049–54 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15480084|url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0263-6352&volume=22&issue=11&spage=2049 |ref=harv| quote = All the randomized clinical trials of TM for the control of blood pressure published to date have important methodological weaknesses and are potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials |journal=Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. |volume=115 |issue=21–22 |pages=758–66 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14743579 |doi= 10.1007/BF03040500|url= |quote = All 4 positive trials recruited subjects from among people favourably predisposed towards TM, and used passive control procedures … The association observed between positive outcome, subject selection procedure and control procedure suggests that the large positive effects reported in 4 trials result from an expectation effect. The claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomized controlled trials.}}</ref>

There has been ongoing research into the Transcendental Meditation technique since studies first conducted at [[UCLA]] and [[Harvard University]] in the early 1970s.<ref>Lyn Freeman, ''Mosby’s Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach'', Mosby Elsevier, 2009, p. 163</ref> The research has included studies on physiological changes during meditation, clinical applications, cognitive effects, mental health, addiction, and rehabilitation. Beginning in the 1990s, a focus of research has been the effects of Transcendental Meditation on cardiovascular disease, with over $20 million in funding from the [[National Institutes of Health]].<ref name="QUICK">{{Cite news|url=http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105 |title=Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding|first=SUSANNE|last=QUICK|date=October 17, 2004|work=Journal Sentinel|location=Milwaukee, WI |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070929124114/http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105 |archivedate = September 29, 2007}}</ref>

==Health outcomes==
===Reduced medical costs===
According to research reviews, a retrospective, non-randomized study that examined the health care utilization records for over 2,800 subjects in Quebec found that the 1,400 subjects in the TM group needed less health care after learning TM, whereas the control group’s need increased. These preliminary findings "suggest the potential for decreased usage and costs among patients using TM."<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Bodeker | first1=Gerald | last2= Kronenberg | first2= Fredi | title=A Public Health Agenda for Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicine | journal=American Journal of Public Health | volume=92 | issue=10 | date=October 2002 | page=1588 | quote=A retrospective study of Quebec health insurance enrollees compared a group of 1418 Transcendental Meditation (TM) practitioners with 1418 nonmeditators. The yearly rate of increase in payments in both groups was not significantly different before the TM group learned meditation; after learning, the annual change in mean payments was a decline of 1% to 2% for the TM group and an increase of up to 12% for nonmeditators.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Liza |last1=Varvogli |first2=Christina |last2=Darviri |title=Stress Management Techniques: Evidence-Based Procedures that Reduce Stress and Promote Health |journal=Health Science Journal |volume=5 |issue=2 |year=2011 |pages=74–89 | quote=Regular practice of TM leads to reduced medical care utilization and expenditures.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Barrows | first1=Kevin | last2=Jacobs | first2=Bradley | title=Mind-Body Medicine: An Introduction and Review of the Literature | journal=Medical Clinics of North America | volume=86 | issue=1 | date=January 2002 | pages=13-15 | quote=Preliminary findings suggest the potential for decreased usage and costs among patients using TM.}}</ref>

===Cardiovascular disease===
A 2007 [[systematic review]] and [[meta-analysis]] funded by the NIH Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found that the effects of TM were no greater than health education regarding [[blood pressure]], body weight, [[heart rate]], stress, anger, self-efficacy, [[cholesterol]], dietary intake, or level of physical activity.<ref name="Ospina p.4">{{Cite journal|author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |volume= |issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |page=4 |url= |ref=harv| quote = A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake}}</ref> This same review performed a meta-analysis that compared TM to [[progressive muscle relaxation]] and found that TM produced a greater reduction in blood pressure.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |volume= |issue=155 |pages=148 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |url= |ref=harv}} Quotation: "When compared to PMR (progressive muscle relaxation), TM® produced significantly greater benefits in SBP (systolic blood pressure) and DBP (diastolic blood pressure)"</ref> The report analyzed studies that compared TM to no treatment and found that it did not produce significantly greater benefits on blood pressure but did produce improvement in cholesterol levels and verbal creativity. In studies that compared TM to a wait-listed control group, TM resulted in greater reduction in blood pressure. The report's assessment of before-and-after studies on patients with essential hypertension found a reduction in blood pressure after practicing TM.<ref>Ospina p. 187</ref> The review concludes that firm conclusions regarding health effects cannot be drawn due to the poor quality of the research, though TM researchers said an inappropriate method of quality assessment was used.<ref name=Rainforth>{{Cite journal|first1=Maxwell |last1=Rainforth| first2=Schneider |last2=RH|last3=Nidich|first3=SI|last4=Gaylord-King |first4=C|last5=Salerno |first5=JW|last6=Anderson |first6=JW|title=Stress Reduction Programs in Patients with Elevated Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=Current Hypertension Reports |year=2007|month=December|volume=9|pmid=18350109 |pmc=2268875|issue=6 |doi=10.1007/s11906-007-0094-3 |pages=520–528}}</ref><ref name="Orme-Johnson DW 2008 1215–21">{{Cite journal|author=Orme-Johnson DW |title=Commentary on the AHRQ report on research on meditation practices in health |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1215–21 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19123876 |doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0464 |ref=harv}}</ref> David Orme-Johnson, former director of research at Maharishi University of Management, in a published critique of the AHRQ report, noted that 98 “potentially relevant” research papers that were suggested for inclusion by the study’s peer-reviewers were disregarded. He also said that the study excluded three categories of studies on meditation that have been included in previous reviews (meditation and alcohol/drug use, adolescents, mortality), and that the study did not control for the confounding of meditation effects and exercise effects.<ref name="Orme-Johnson DW 2008 1215–21">{{Cite journal|author=Orme-Johnson DW |title=Commentary on the AHRQ report on research on meditation practices in health |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1217 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19123876 |doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0464 |ref=harv}}</ref>

A 2007 medical textbook on heart disease said that "TM has been shown to not only improve blood pressure but also the [[insulin resistance]] components of [[metabolic syndrome]] and cardiac [[autonomic nervous system]] tone" in subjects with cardiovascular disease, compared with matched controls given only health education.<ref>John Vogel, Rebecca Costello, and Mitchell Krucoff, Chapter 47 in ''Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine'', Peter Libbie, et al, eds, Saunders Elsevier, 2007, p. 1157. Quotation: “TM has been shown not only to improve blood pressure but also the insulin resistance components of the metabolic syndrome and cardiac autonomic nervous system tone.”</ref> A 2007 review said that data from two studies found reduced mortality from all causes over a mean period of eight years in subjects practicing Transcendental Meditation, compared to controls. In both studies, the controls practiced relaxation techniques, and in one study TM was compared with health education. The review said that its findings are consistent with other research that has found improved blood pressure, insulin resistance, and cardiac autonomic-nervous-system tone in subjects with cardiovascular disease. The review concluded that [[psychosocial]] interventions are effective in alleviating distress in cardiovascular patients but that further research is needed to firmly establish that these interventions can affect disease processes, morbidity, and mortality.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1097/YCO.0b013e3280147724|first1=Erin M. |last1=Fekete|first2=Michael H. |last2=Antoni |last3=Neil |first3=Schneiderman|title=Psychosocial and behavioral interventions for chronic medical conditions|journal=Current Opinion in Psychiatry |year=2007|volume=20|issue=2|pages=152–157|pmid=17278914}} Quotation:". . . compared to control groups, men and women in a transcendental meditation group revealed lower all-cause mortality over a mean duration of 8 years. Consistent with these findings, after 4 months of transcendental-meditation training, men showed significant changes in blood pressure and insulin sensitivity even after controlling for changes in weight, medication and psychological well being."</ref> Independent research reviews also note that a 2000 study published in [[Stroke (journal)|Stroke]] found that Transcendental Meditation, compared to health education, reduces atherosclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Elissa |last1=Epel |first2=Jennifer |last2=Daubenmier |first3=Judith |last3=Tedlie Moskowitz |first4=Susan |last4=Folkman |first5=Elizabeth |last5=Blackburn |title=Can Meditation Slow Rate of Cellular Aging? Cognitive Stress, Mindfulness, and Telomeres |journal=Longevity, Regeneration, and Optimal Health: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1172 |pages=34–53 |year=2009 |pmid=19735238 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04414.x |pmc=3057175}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Craig |last=Hassed |title=Complementary therapies for cerebrovascular disease |journal=Australian Family Physician |volume=36 |issue=11 |date=November 2007 |page=921 |pmid= 18043778}} "A study by Castillo-Richmond examined the effect of transcendental meditation and found reversal of carotid atherosclerosis and consequent reduction in risk for cerebrovascular events. This was not explainable by other risk factors controlled for in the study."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Coleman |last=Pratt |title=Alternative Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease, Part 2 |journal=Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice |volume=37 |year=2010 |page=346 |pmid=20493340 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2010.02.010 |issue=2}} Quotation: “Researchers . . . found that participants were able to demonstrate regression of coronary arterial plaques (atherosclerosis) after practicing TM twice a day for 6 to 9 months, compared to patients who received simple health education. . . . Researchers at the State University of New York also found that CAD (cardiovascular disease) could be improved with regular TM.”</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| first = Amparo
| last = Castillo-Richmond
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Schneider,Robert H.; Alexander, Charles N.; Cook, Robert ; Myers, Hector; Nidich, Sanford; Haney, Chinelo; Rainforth, Maxwell; Salerno, John
| year = 2000
| month =
| date =
| title = Effects of Stress Reduction on Carotid Atherosclerosis in Hypertensive African Americans
| journal = Stroke
| volume = 31
| issue = 3
| pages = 568
| doi =
| url = http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/strokeaha;31/3/568
| accessdate = 2011-05-05
| pmid = 10700487
}}</ref>

A 2006 independent systematic review said, "a small body of research suggests that TM and group-oriented stress management may be effective in reducing psychosocial stress and its effects for African Americans..." The findings include reduced sleep dysfunction and increased health locus of control. The review noted a finding of reduced mortality in African Americans in comparison to a standard relaxation technique. The reviewer said that of the six studies on African-Americans involving TM, one showed no improvement, and only two used blinding; however all were randomized controlled trials. The study also found that in first-world populations, several meta-analyses indicate that TM reduces anxiety, smoking, alcohol and drug misuse, and improves psychological health.<ref>{{Cite journal | first = Yin | last = Paradies | title = A Review of Psychosocial Stress and Chronic Disease for 4th World Indigenous Peoples and African Americans| year = 2006 | month = Winter | date = | journal = Ethnicity and Disease | volume = 16 | pages = 295, 302, 305| url = http://www.ishib.org/ED/journal/16-1/ethn-16-01-295.pdf| accessdate = March 31, 2011 }} (independent systematic review) Quotation: “In general, TM was more effective that PMR (progressive muscle relaxation) in an eight-year follow-up of 530 African American participants which found a 63% reduction in all-cause mortality and an 82% reduction in heart disease mortality in the intervention group compared to the control groups. . . . Six randomized conrolled studies . . . used TM as the intervention, with PMR also used as a secondary intervention in several trials . . . Compared to the control group, those who undertook the TM intervention had decreased carotid intima-media thickness, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate and cardiac output, anxiety, depression, neuroticism, and sleep dysfunction, as well as increased energy, general mental health, and health locus of control.</ref>

A 2008 meta-analysis of nine studies found a 4.7 mmHg systolic blood pressure and 3.2 mmHg diastolic blood pressure decrease in those who practiced TM compared to control groups that included health education. Three of the studies were assessed as good quality, three as acceptable, and three suboptimal, with subgroup analyses finding no significant difference among the results of the weaker and stronger studies.<ref name=Anderson08>{{Cite journal|author=Anderson JW, Liu C, Kryscio RJ |title=Blood pressure response to transcendental meditation: a meta-analysis |journal=Am. J. Hypertens. |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=310–6 |year=2008 |month=March |pmid=18311126 |doi=10.1038/ajh.2007.65 |url= |ref=harv}}</ref> The review and its primary author were partially funded by Howard Settle,<ref name=Anderson08/> a proponent of TM.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.deutsche-nachrichten-agentur.de/de/verzeichnis/wirtschaft/investitionen/524625052 |title=Yogic Flyers, Create Invincible America today|first=Howard |last=Settle|publisher=Deutsche Nachrichten Agentur |accessdate=September 2, 2010|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5sSdEsRzp|archivedate=September 2, 2010}}</ref>

A 2007 meta-analysis by researchers at Maharishi University of Management and the University of Kentucky found that TM significantly lowered blood pressure but that biofeedback, progressive muscle relaxation, and stress management training did not. The results differed from the 2007 government report mentioned above because the authors removed overlapping studies, corrected data collection errors, and included studies outside the scope of that report.<ref name=Rainforth/><ref>{{Cite journal|first=Tanya M |last=Spruill|title=Chronic Psychosocial Stress and Hypertension|journal=Curr Hypertens Rep|year=2010|volume=12|page=14}}</ref>

===Cardiovascular function in students===
A 2009 independent systematic review and a 2010 narrative review reported on several randomized controlled trials on school students that found an improvement in blood pressure and cardiovascular function in the TM group compared to health education. In addition, they reported on a randomized controlled trial on psychosocial and behavioral outcomes that compared TM to health education and found that the TM group had decreased absentee periods, rule infractions, and suspension days, but found no difference in the TM and control groups in regard to tardiness, lifestyle, or stress. The 2010 review concluded that "Studies of TM’s effect in youth on cardiovascular risk, cognition, affect, and behavior are promising, but larger, more definitive comparative effectiveness research is needed." The 2009 review said that because of limitations of the research, larger-scale and more demographically diverse studies need to be done to clarify treatment efficacy." <ref name=peds09>{{Cite journal|author=Black DS, Milam J, Sussman S |title=Sitting-Meditation Interventions Among Youth: A Review of Treatment Efficacy |journal=Pediatrics/American Academy of Pediatrics|volume= 124|issue= 3|pages= e536|year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19706568 |doi=10.1542/peds.2008-3434 |url= |ref=harv}} (independent systematic review) Quotation: “TM group decreased from before to after test in SBP (systolic blood pressure), HR (heart rate) and CO (cardiac output) during acute stress simulation, and in SBP to a social stressor compared to controls . . . . “ “Study design: RCT: TM (n=17) vs health education control (n=18)” ; “TM group increased EDAD compared to controls, indicating improved endothelial function.” “Study design: RCT: TM (n=57) vs health education control (n=54)”</ref><ref name="Sibinga2010">{{cite journal|last=Sibinga|first=EM|coauthors=Kemper, KJ|title=Complementary, holistic, and integrative medicine: meditation practices for pediatric health|journal=Pediatrics in review / American Academy of Pediatrics|date=2010 Dec|volume=31|issue=12|pages=e95–e96|pmid=21123509|doi=10.1542/pir.31-12-e91}} Quotation: TM group had greater decrease in SBP (systolic blood pressure) HR (heart rate) and CO (cardiac output) reactivity to simulated card driving stressor . . . .” “Design and Training Period: Random assignment to health education control or TM practiced 15 min twice a day . . . .” (p. e96)</ref>

A 2009 review reported on research by MUM graduate Vernon Barnes and his colleagues at the Medical College of Georgia on variables related to blood pressure that found that, compared to an eyes-closed relaxation control group, the TM group had increased cardiac output and decreased peripheral resistance as well as decreased systolic blood pressure.<ref name=Olivo>{{cite journal |first=Erin |last=Olivo |title=Protection throughout the Life Span: The Psychoneuroimmunologic Impact of Indo-Tibetan Meditative and Yogic Practices |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |issue=1172 |pages=163–171 |year=2009}} “In perhaps the only controlled study investigating the impact of meditation on TPR, subjects in the TM group exhibited significantly decreased TPR and SBP compared with increases in the eyes-closed relaxation control group.”</ref>

Reviews in 2010 and 2011 reported a 2009 study by MUM and American University researchers on 298 college students that found decreased blood pressure in the TM group that was associated with a reduction in stress and hostility, and an increase in coping.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Sala |last=Horowitz |title=Health Benefits of Meditation: What the Newest Research Shows |journal=Alternative and Complementary Therapies |volume=16 |issue=4 |date=August 2010 |pages=223–228}} {{cite journal |first1=Liza |last1=Varvogli |first2=Christina |last2=Darviri |title=Stress Management Techniques: Evidence-Based Procedures that Reduce Stress and Promote Health |journal=Health Science Journal |volume=5 |issue=2 |year=2011 |pages=74–89}}Quotation: “Clinical effects of TM impact a broad spectrum of physical and psychological symptoms and syndromes, including reduced anxiety, pain, and depression, enhanced mood and self esteem, decreased stress, and faster recovery from stress.” (Varvogli & Darviri)</ref>

===Cardiovascular function in the elderly===
A 2005 systematic review said that research shows that TM improves cardiovascular function in the elderly and slows the aging process.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Deborah |last=Lindberg |title=Integrative Review of Research Related to Meditation, Spirituality, and the Elderly |journal=Geriatric Nursing |volume=26 |issue= 6 |year=2005 |pages=372=377}} "Researchers have demonstrated that Transcendental Meditation (TM) improves cardiovascular health in the elderly. Beneficial responses to practicing TM are decreased blood pressure, reversal of atherosclerosis, and other cardiac-related body symptoms. Early research by Wallace and colleagues evidenced slowing of the aging process in a cross-sectional group of subjects who practiced TM. This finding is supported by additional studies."</ref>

==Mental function==
===ADHD===
A 2010 [[systematic review]] and [[meta analysis]] by the [[Cochrane collaboration]] was unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy (including TM ) for ADHD due to the lack of suitable evidence.<ref name="Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N 2010 CD006507">{{Cite journal|author=Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N |title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=6 |issue= 6|pages=CD006507 |year=2010 |pmid=20556767 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 |url=|editor1-last=Krisanaprakornkit|editor1-first=Thawatchai}}</ref>

===Anxiety and cognitive function===
A 2006 review by the Cochrane collaboration found that there was insufficient evidence to draw conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation for anxiety disorders. The review found that TM is equivalent to relaxation (modified progressive muscle relaxation) in reducing anxiety.<ref name=Cochrane06>{{Cite journal|author=Krisanaprakornkit T, Krisanaprakornkit W, Piyavhatkul N, Laopaiboon M |title=Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume= |issue=1 |pages=CD004998 |year=2006 |pmid=16437509 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2 |ref=harv|editor1-last=Krisanaprakornkit|editor1-first=Thawatchai}}</ref>

Seventy studies on TM were included in a 1989 meta-analysis conducted by a Stanford University physicist and longtime TM practitioner and two past members of the MUM faculty which found that relaxation techniques reduce [[trait anxiety]] and that Transcendental Meditation had a larger [[effect size]] than other relaxation techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Kenneth |last1=Eppley |first2=Allan |last2=Abrams |first3=Jonathan |last3=Shear |title=Differential effects of relaxation techniques on trait anxiety: A meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology |volume=45 |issue=6 |year=1989 |pages=957–974 |pmid=2693491 |doi=10.1002/1097-4679(198911)45:6<957::AID-JCLP2270450622>3.0.CO;2-Q}}</ref><ref>For background of researchers, see: {{cite news|archivedate=February 28, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5wqUju1N2|title=Transcendental Meditation best against stress, study shows|first=Joel |last=Shurkin|work=The Stanford University Campus Report|date=April 4, 1990|url=http://archive.tm.org/news/stanford_u.html}} {{cite journal|title=Kohlbergian Cosmic Perspective Responses, EEG Coherence, and the TM and TM-Sidhi Programme |author=Sanford I. Nidich; Robert A. Ryncarz; Allan I. Abrams; David Orme-Johnson; Robert Keith Wallace|date=October 1983 |journal=Journal of Moral Education|volume=12|issue=3|url=http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a746540676}} {{cite web|title=Santa Barbara Institute for Consciousness Studies: Staff & Advisors|archivedate=February 28, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5wqW18tGH|year=2005|publisher=sbinstitute.com}}</ref> The meta-analysis was criticized in a 2003 editorial by Peter Canter because it included studies with no control groups,<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Peter |last=Canter |title=The therapeutic effects of meditation |journal=BMJ |volume=326 |year=2003 |pages=1049–50 |doi=10.1136/bmj.326.7398.1049 |pmid=12750183 |issue=7398 |pmc=1125975}}</ref> while a 2009 textbook on research-based alternative medicine characterized it as "thorough and well designed."<ref name=Freeman2009/>

According to research reviews, three studies conducted by a Maharishi University of Management doctoral student and reported in 2001 in the scholarly journal ''[[Intelligence (journal)|Intelligence]]'' found that TM reduced anxiety compared to simple rest, contemplative meditation, and no treatment. A randomized controlled trial involving 154 high school students in China found that TM reduced anxiety compared to a control group that simply lay down to rest or sleep, which the authors said indicates that TM has an effect beyond simply resting. This study was replicated by the same researchers in two subsequent randomized controlled trials involving Chinese and Taiwanese students using contemplative meditation and no-treatment control groups.<ref name=Sibinga2010/><ref name=Shapiro-Humanistic /><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Lopez |editor1-first=Shane |editor2-last=Snyder |editor2=first=C.R. |title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |location=New York |chapter=Meditation and Positive Psychology |last=Shapiro |first=Shauna |pages=601–610 |isbn=978-0-19-518724-3}}</ref> The three studies, characterized by Shauna Shapiro and [[Roger Walsh]] in a 2003 research review as being "well-designed studies", also found that TM improves cognitive performance, including increased practical intelligence, creativity, and speed of information processing.<ref name=Sibinga2010/><ref name=Shapiro-Humanistic>{{Cite journal|first1=Shauna L. |last1=Shapiro |first2=Roger|last2=Walsh |title=An Analysis of Recent Meditation Research and Suggestions for Future Directions|journal=The Humanistic Psychologist|year=2003|volume=31(2–3)|pages=86–114}}</ref> A 2011 review by Shapiro, et al., said the studies "provide good support for the use of TM to enhance several forms of information processing in students."<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Shauna |last1=Shapiro |first2=Kirk |last2=Brown |first3=John |last3=Astin |title=Toward the Integration of Meditation into Higher Education: A Review of Research Evidence |journal=Teachers College Record |volume=113 |issue=3 |date=March 2011 |pages=495–528}}</ref>

A 2003 review by Peter Canter and [[Edzard Ernst]] concluded that evidence does not support a specific or cumulative effect from TM on [[cognitive function]]. The review did find positive results in studies that recruited people with favorable opinions of TM, and used passive control procedures.<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr.">{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function—a systematic review of randomised controlled trials |journal=Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. |volume=115 |issue=21–22 |pages=758–66 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14743579 |doi= 10.1007/BF03040500|url= |ref=harv}}</ref>

Walsh, in a 2007 psychotherapy textbook, characterized as "well-designed" a randomized controlled trial which found that TM improved cognitive function and mental health in nursing home residents compared to relaxation, no treatment, and mindfulness training. He writes that other studies have found that TM subjects typically score higher on measures of cognitive development, self-actualization, coping skills, and moral development.<ref>{{cite book | last=Walsh | first=Roger | chapter=Contemplative Psychotherapies | title=Current Psychotherapies | editor1-last=Corsini | editor1-first=Raymond | editor2-last=Wedding | editor2-first=Danny | editor3-last=Dumont | editor3-first=Frank | edition=8th | publisher=Brooks/Cole | year=2007 | ISBN=0495097144 | page=464}}</ref>

===Personality growth===
According to the research review by Shapiro and Walsh, a study involving 120 female subjects found that long-term TM practice may increase positive personality growth, with the subjects in the TM group being more confident, relaxed, introverted, satisfied, and conscientious, as well as being less anxious, compared to the control group.<ref>{{Cite journal| first = Shauna L.| last = Shapiro| coauthors = Walsh, Roger| year = 2003| title = An Analysis of Recent Meditation Research and Suggestions for Future Directions | journal = The Humanistic Psychologist| volume = 31| issue = 2–3| pages = 86–114. Quotation: "At six-month followup the TM group demonstrated . . . (lists findings re: four mental abilities) . . . as well as significantly reduced anxiety compared to the control group."}}</ref>

==Criminal rehabilitation, addiction==
===Rehabilitation===
Transcendental Meditation has been used in correctional settings, and research has shown a reduction in negative psychological states and recidivism—that is, returning to criminal behavior after being released from prison. According to a 2010 research review, studies involving hundreds of prisoners at [[San Quentin]] and [[Folsom State Prison]]s in California and [[Massachusetts Correctional Institution - Cedar Junction|Walpole State Prison]] in Massachusetts found that recidivism rates were reduced by as much as 47%. Overall, the TM prisoners at Folsom were 43% less likely to return to prison compared to control groups. The study at Folsom also looked at anxiety measures and found a sharp reduction compared to controls. The review said that meditation studies may be subject to researcher bias and self-selection bias, but concluded that policy makers and prison officials may want to implement meditation programs in prisons.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Samuel |last=Himelstein|title=Meditation Research: The State of the Art in Correctional Settings|journal=International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology|month=March |year=2010|pmid=20332328|doi=10.1177/0306624X10364485|volume=55|issue=4|pages=646–61}}</ref>

===Addiction===
A 2009 review looked at the effect of TM on addiction and noted that while many studies exist, they were conducted by researchers affiliated with Transcendental Meditation and were not randomized controlled trials. Thus the evidence for treating addictive disorders is speculative and inconsistent.<ref name=Dakwar09/> It said that while the quasi-religious aspects and cost may deter people, the simplicity of the technique, the physiological changes it induces, and the apparent effectiveness in nonpsychiatric settings merit further study and that "the theoretical basis for meditation’s role in addressing substance use disorders is compelling" based on the physiological mechanisms that have been found.<ref name=Dakwar09>{{Cite journal|author=Dakwar E, Levin FR |title=The emerging role of meditation in addressing psychiatric illness, with a focus on substance use disorders |journal=Harv Rev Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=254–67 |year=2009 |pmid=19637074 |doi=10.1080/10673220903149135 |url= |ref=harv}}</ref>

Three randomized controlled trials on TM have shown reduced substance abuse. According to the Cambridge Textbook of Effective Treatments in Psychiatry, a randomized controlled trial that included the use of Transcendental Meditation in treating alcoholism found that TM and biofeedback increased abstinence in alcoholics. The textbook concluded that there is not yet sufficient evidence for use as treatment but that meditation can help alcoholic patients in a variety of ways.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Elizabeth A.R. |last1=Robinson|first2=Stephen |last2=Strobb|first3=Kirk J.|last3=Brower|editor1-first =Peter |editor1-last=Tyrer|editor2-first=Kenneth R. |editor2-last=Silk|title=Cambridge Textbook of Effective Treatments in Psychiatry|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|chapter=Complementary and alternative medicine for alcohol misuse|pages=345–347}}</ref> A randomized controlled trial on college students found that both TM and karate training reduced drug usage compared to a no-treatment control group. And a randomized controlled trial on drug users treated for hepatitis found a reduction in drug use in the TM group, and an increase in usage in the no-treatment control group.<ref>{{cite book |first1=William |last1=O'Donohue |first2=Nicholas |last2=Cummings |title=Evidence-Based Adjunctive Treatments |publisher=Academic Press |year=2008 |page=188}} Re: a randomized, controlled trial (RCT) involving TM, Reports of drug use decreased for the TM group and increased for the control group. O’Donohue reports two other RCT’s finding reduced drug or alcohol abuse in TM subjects.</ref>

==Effects on the brain==
===Alpha brain waves and alpha coherence===
Transcendental Meditation has been found to produce specific types of brain waves as measured by [[electroencephalography]] (EEG). Studies have found that, compared to a baseline, during meditation there is an increase in alpha amplitude followed by a slowing of the alpha frequency and the spread of this to the frontal cortex Alpha brain waves are classically viewed as reflecting a relaxed brain. When compared to control groups using a different relaxation technique, the increase in alpha is similar and integrated alpha amplitude may even decrease compared to a baseline of eyes-closed rest.<ref name=Lutz>{{Cite book | isbn = 9780521857437 | editor1-first = Philip David | editor1-last = Zelazo | editor2-first = Morris | editor2-last = Moscovitch | editor3-first = Evan | editor3-last = Thompson | title = The Cambridge handbook of consciousness | year = 2007 | pages = 534–535| publisher = Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

Transcendental Meditation also produces alpha coherence, that is, large-scale integration of frequencies in different parts of the brain. These brain patterns generally suggest a decrease in mental activity and are associated with a relaxed state. This pattern is also sometimes seen while a subject is actively focusing his or her attention on an object or holding some information in mind.<ref name=Lutz/>

In the ''Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness'', Lutz says that claims in TM promotional material that this coherence represents a higher state of consciousness or a more orderly state of the brain and one that is unique to TM may be overstated or premature "because alpha rhythms are ubiquitous and functionally non-specific...." Lutz says "alpha frequencies frequently produce spontaneously moderate to large coherence (0.3–0.8 over large inter-electrode distance). The alpha coherence values reported in TM studies, as a trait in the baseline or during meditation, belong to this same range. Thus a global increase of alpha power and alpha coherence might not reflect a more 'ordered' or 'integrated' experience, as frequently claimed in TM literature, but rather a relaxed, inactive mental state."<ref name=Lutz/> On the other hand, in the book ''The Brain's Alpha Rhythms and the Mind'', Shaw says that the EEG changes in alpha coherence are indeed related to meditation, citing Austin. The coherence is distinguished by appearing in the frontal lobes of the brain and is correlated with mental clarity and changes in respiration.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=Shaw |title=The Brain’s Alpha Rhythms and the Mind: A Review of Classical and Modern Studies of the Alpha Rhythm Components of the Electroencephalogram with Commentaries on Associated Neuroscience and Neuropsychology |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=Amsterdam |year=2003 |page=212}}</ref>

===States of consciousness===

Research suggests that the practice of TM results in [[Neurophysiology|neurophysiological]] states not ordinarily observed and that are associated with enhanced awareness. A state referred to by Maharishi as transcendental consciousness and experienced during Transcendental Meditation is characterized as being distinct from the ordinary states of waking, sleeping, and dreaming, and as being a "deeply restful yet fully alert state of inner wakefulness with no object of thought or perception."<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Patricia |last1=Tassi |first2=Alain |last2=Muzet |title=Defining the states of consciousness |journal=Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews |year=2001 |issue=25 |pages=175–191 |publisher=Pergamon |pmid=11323082 |volume=25}}</ref>
Research has found that specific physiological measures correlate with the experience of transcendental consciousness, including lower respiratory rates, greater heart rate variability, higher amplitude alpha brain waves, and greater alpha coherence.<ref name="Shapiro-Humanistic"/>

In addition, a state [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] called "cosmic consciousness", may be characterized by the experience of transcendental consciousness outside of meditation and that is present even during sleep. Research on individuals experiencing this state during sleep as a result of practice of TM has found EEG profiles, muscle tone measurements, and REM indicators that suggest there is physiological evidence of this state.<ref name=Shapiro-Humanistic /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Walsh R, Shapiro SL |title=The meeting of meditative disciplines and Western psychology: a mutually enriching dialogue |journal=The American Psychologist |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=227–39 |year=2006 |month=April |pmid=16594839 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227}}</ref> Fred Travis of [[Maharishi University of Management]] and Joe Tecce of Boston College have also done research on individuals experiencing transcendental consciousness during activity, finding that they also exhibited brain wave signatures that were different from control groups. In addition, the research suggested more efficient functioning in the frontal cortex of the brain.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=B. Rael |last1=Cahn |first2=John |last2=Polich |title=Meditation States and Traits: EEG, ERP, and Neuroimaging Studies |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=132 |issue=2 |year=2006 |pages=180–211 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180 |pmid=16536641}}</ref>

===Epilepsy: kindling or therapy?===

EEG studies have shown an increase in theta waves and a dominant pattern of alpha waves in the frontal and occipital lobes. With long-term practice these changes seen in meditation carry over into activity. These changes may enhance brain integration and reduce emotional reactivity.<ref name=Dakwar09/> According to a review by Lansky and St Louis, EEG measurements that show neuronal hypersynchrony are similar to those found in [[epilepsy]], leading to concerns about the potential risk of [[kindling model|kindling]] of epilepsy from repetitive Transcendental Meditation.<ref name=Epi06>{{Cite journal|author=Lansky EP, St Louis EK |title=Transcendental meditation: a double-edged sword in epilepsy? |journal=Epilepsy Behav |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=394–400 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=16931164 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04.019 |url= |ref=harv}}</ref> But the authors say clinical studies have found meditation to be a possible antiepileptic therapy. They say that more research is needed "to establish the safety of this technique and its potential efficacy for seizure reduction and improvement of quality of life."<ref name=Epi06/>

===Experience of pain===

A brain imaging study on practitioners of Transcendental Meditation conducted by researchers affiliated with Maharishi University and the University of California at Irvine led by David Orme-Johnson showed that TM decreases activity in the thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex in response to pain. The tests, which used functional magnetic resonance imagine (fMRI) found approximately a 50% reduction in these pain-processing regions of the brain compared to a control group.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Orme-Johnson|first=DW|last2=Schneider|first2=RH|last3=Son|first3=YD|last4=Nidich|first4=S|last5=Cho|first5=Z-H|title=Neuroimaging of meditation’s effect on brain reactivity to pain|journal=NeuroReport|year=2006|issue=17|volume=12|pages=1359–1363}}</ref> The results suggest that, while it does not reduce pain, TM does reduce the emotional distress associated with the experience of pain, resulting in greater tolerance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Braboszcz|first1=Claire|last2=Hahusseau|first2=Stephanie|last3=Delorme|first3=Arnaud|chapter=Meditation and Neuroscience: From Basic Research to Clinical Practice|editor1-last=Carlstedt |editor1-first=Ronald |title=Handbook of Integrative Clinical Psychology, Psychiatry, and Behavioral Medicine: Perspectives, Practices, and Research |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |page=766|isbn=9780826110947}} Quotation: “This study further suggests that TM practice . . . does reduce emotional distress associated with pain, resulting in enhanced tolerance of acute pain. Results of this last study are of particular significance, as they highlight meditation’s effects on the regulation of the distress associated with painful feelings.”</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=Robert |first2=Claudia |last2=Campbell |first3=Robert |last3=Jamison |first4=Katja |last4=Wiech |title=The Neurobiological Underpinnings of Coping With Pain |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |year=2009 |volume=18 |page=240}}</ref>

==Effects on the physiology==
TM has been found to produce a set of characteristic responses such as reduced respiration, decreased breath volume, decreased lactate and cortisol (hormones associated with stress), increased basal skin resistance, and slowed heartbeat.<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr." /><ref name=Dakwar09/> Maharishi U researchers Michael Dillbeck and David Orme-Johnson conducted a meta-analysis of 31 studies which found that compared simply resting with one's eyes closed, TM had a greater effect on parameters associated with rest, such as respiration rate, blood plasma lactate levels, and skin resistance.<ref name=Olivo/><ref name=Shapiro-Humanistic/><ref>{{cite book |first= Angele |last=McGrady |chapter=Relaxation and Meditation |title=Low-Cost Approaches to Promote Physical and Mental Health: Theory, Research, and Practice |editor-first= Luciano |editor-last=L'Abate |pages=161–176 |publisher=Springer |year=2010}}</ref> The mechanism for the effects of TM has been explained by proponents as being due to greater order in the physiology, decreased stress, and growth of creative intelligence.<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr." />

In their 1985 book on religion, Bainbridge and Stark say that subsequent articles published in the 1970s suggested "that the original findings had been false or exaggerated".<ref name=Market85>{{cite book |author=Bainbridge, Sims; Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William Sims |title=The future of religion: secularization, revival, and cult formation |publisher=Univ. of California Press |location=Berkeley, Calif |year=1985 |pages= |isbn=0-520-05731-7 |oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=lTzPyvT2yusC&pg=PA285&dq=public+relations+Transcendental+meditation#v=onepage&q=public%20relations%20Transcendental%20meditation&f=false}}</ref> However, in a 2009 research review in the ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'', William Bushell referred to the original research as "classic," and said that the preponderance of evidence has shown a reduction in metabolic rate.<ref name=Bushell>{{cite article| author=William Bushell |title=Longevity Potential Life Span and Health Span Enhancement through Practice of the Basic Yoga Meditation Regimen |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1172 | date=2009 |page=21}}</ref>

==Contraindications==
While meditation is usually considered safe, Transcendental Meditation may be contraindicated for those with psychiatric illnesses. According to a textbook on alternative and complementary medicine by Lyn Freeman, in this situation it is best if meditation is introduced in the context of a clinical setting, and those patients who are seriously disturbed should only be introduced to meditation under the supervision of a doctor or psychotherapist. Individuals with moderate symptoms were observed to benefit from the practice.<ref name="Freeman2009">{{cite book |first=Lyn |last=Freeman |title=Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach |publisher=Mosby Elsevier |year=2009 |pages=158–188|isbn=978-0-323-05346-4 |ref=harv}}</ref>

==Research quality==

Canter and Ernst's 2004 review found that all randomized clinical trials on blood pressure had important methodological weaknesses and were potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=2049–54 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15480084 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0263-6352&volume=22&issue=11&spage=2049 |ref=harv}}</ref> It concluded that to date, there was "insufficient good-quality evidence to conclude whether or not TM has a cumulative positive effect on blood pressure". In response, TM researchers said that most of the studies in the review were funded by various institutes of the National Institutes of Health and that, as such, the methodologies were peer-reviewed by experts.<ref name="Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI 2006 S4–15–26" />

A 2007 [[systematic review]] of research on [[meditation]], including Transcendental Meditation, said that firm conclusions on health effects cannot be drawn, as the majority of the studies are of poor methodological quality.<ref name="Ospina p.v">Ospina p.v</ref> The review included studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and substance abuse.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evidence Report/technology Assessment |volume= |issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |url=http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref> The review used the [[Jadad scale]] to assess the quality of the studies using control groups and [[Newcastle-Ottawa Scale]] for the others. The quality assessment portion of the 2007 review was published in 2008. The article stated that "Most clinical trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to [[validity]] in every major quality domain assessed." The authors found that there was a [[statistically significant]] increase in the quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956 and 2005. Of the 400 clinical studies, 10% were found to be good quality.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1199–213 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19123875 |doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0307 |ref=harv}}</ref>

TM researchers said that the 2007 review suffered from limitations related to data collection, analysis, and reporting procedures.<ref name=Rainforth/> Researchers affiliated with Maharishi University of Management and the University of Kentucky said that the use of double blinding, which is required by the Jadad scale, is not appropriate to meditation research and that the review failed to assess more relevant determinants of research quality.<ref name=Rainforth/><ref name="Orme-Johnson DW 2008 1215–21" /> Research reviews in science journals say that double blinding may not be possible in meditation research.<ref>Ospina, Maria, et al, "Clinical Trials of Meditation Practices in Health Care: Characteristics and Quality," The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210</ref><ref>Anderson, James, et al, "Blood Pressure Response to Transcendental Meditation: A Meta-analysis," American Journal of Hypertension, March 2008, Volume 21 Number 3, p. 311</ref><ref>Linden W, Moseley, ?The efficacy of behavioral treatments for hypertension, Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback 2006, 31, pp. 51–63.</ref> Canter and Ernst say that blinding of participants isn't feasible,<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr." /><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=2049–54 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15480084 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0263-6352&volume=22&issue=11&spage=2050 |ref=harv}}</ref> and a Cochrane review says that it's only possible to blind the raters or assessors in meditation trials.<ref name="Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N 2010 CD006507" /> One of the earliest double-blinded placebo studies of Transcendental Mediation was conducted in 1975,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ojd1sdVUydwC&pg=PR9&lpg=PR9&dq=Michigan+state+doctoral+thesis+double+blinded+transcendental#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Smith, Jonathan, ''Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal'', Blackwell Publishing (2010) |publisher=|date= 2009-09-21|accessdate=2010-12-05|isbn=9781405181235}}</ref> but the 2007 government-sponsored review found neither this study nor any of the other 800 studies reviewed were properly double blinded.

Research on Transcendental Meditation has been published by the [[American Medical Association]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Paul-Labrador M, Polk D, Dwyer JH, ''et al.'' |title=Effects of a randomized controlled trial of transcendental meditation on components of the metabolic syndrome in subjects with coronary heart disease |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |volume=166 |issue=11 |pages=1218–24 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=16772250 |doi=10.1001/archinte.166.11.1218 |ref=harv}}</ref> and the [[American Heart Association]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Castillo-Richmond A, Schneider RH, Alexander CN, ''et al.'' |title=Effects of stress reduction on carotid atherosclerosis in hypertensive African Americans |journal=Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=568–73 |year=2000 |month=March |pmid=10700487 |url=http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10700487 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Schneider RH, Staggers F, Alexander CN, ''et al.'' |title=A randomised controlled trial of stress reduction for hypertension in older African Americans |journal=Hypertension |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=820–7 |year=1995 |month=November |pmid=7591024 |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7591024 |ref=harv}}</ref> as well as other medical journals such as the ''American Journal of Hypertension'',<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Nidich SI, Rainforth MV, Haaga DA, ''et al.'' |title=A randomized controlled trial on effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on blood pressure, psychological distress, and coping in young adults |journal=American Journal of Hypertension |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=1326–31 |year=2009 |month=December |pmid=19798037 |doi=10.1038/ajh.2009.184 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Schneider RH, Alexander CN, Staggers F, ''et al.'' |title=A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction in African Americans treated for hypertension for over one year |journal=American Journal of Hypertension |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=88–98 |year=2005 |month=January |pmid=15691622 |pmc=2224896 |doi=10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.08.027 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Barnes VA, Treiber FA, Johnson MH |title=Impact of transcendental meditation on ambulatory blood pressure in African-American adolescents |journal=American Journal of Hypertension |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=366–9 |year=2004 |month=April |pmid=15062892 |doi=10.1016/j.amjhyper.2003.12.008 |ref=harv}}</ref> the ''American Journal of Cardiology'',<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Schneider RH, Alexander CN, Staggers F, ''et al.'' |title=Long-term effects of stress reduction on mortality in persons > or &#61; 55 years of age with systemic hypertension |journal=The American Journal of Cardiology |volume=95 |issue=9 |pages=1060–4 |year=2005 |month=May |pmid=15842971 |pmc=1482831 |doi=10.1016/j.amjcard.2004.12.058 |ref=harv}}</ref> and the ''International Journal of Psychophysiology''.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Travis F, Haaga DA, Hagelin J, ''et al.'' |title=Effects of Transcendental Meditation practice on brain functioning and stress reactivity in college students |journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=170–6 |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=18854202 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.09.007 |ref=harv}}</ref> Research reviews have identified some studies as being "well-designed," "rigorous," or "high quality."<ref name="Anderson08" /><ref name=Shapiro-Humanistic /><ref>Ospina p. 56, 108</ref>

Most of the 700 studies on TM have been produced by researchers directly associated with the [[TM movement]] and many of them have not been [[peer reviewed]], according to a 2003 review that looked at the effects of TM on cognitive function and an article in ''[[Student BMJ]]''.<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr." /><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Yogis and yagyas: Stephen Makin went to Maharishi School and rebelled by deciding to study medicine. Here, he explains the impact that transcendental meditation has had on his life|work=Student BMJ|first=Stephen|last=Makin|issue=11|date=November 2003|page=426|ref=harv}}</ref> According to [[Norman E. Rosenthal]], over 340 scientific studies on TM have been published in peer-reviewed journals.<ref>{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Rosenthal |title=Transcendence: Healing and Transformation through Transcendental Meditation |publisher=Tarcher/Penguin |year=2011 |page=14 |location=New York |isbn=9781585428731}}</ref> A review by Canter and Ernst (2004), said that many studies have been conducted by devotees or researchers at universities tied to the Maharishi, including [[Maharishi University of Management]] in Iowa and Maharishi European Research University in Switzerland,<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr." /><ref>{{Cite news|title=Peace of Mind|first=Esther|last=Hecht|work=Jerusalem Post|date=January 23, 1998|page=12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=For $1,500 a Head, Maharishi Promises Mellower Inmates --- Transcendental Meditation Goes to Prison as Backers Try to Lock Up Contracts|first=Jim|last=Carlton|work=Wall Street Journal|date=April 15, 1991|page=A.1}}</ref> which is disputed by Orme-Johnson, who cites the number of institutions worldwide where the research has been conducted.<ref>{{Cite news|first=David|last=Orme-Johnson|authorlink=David Orme-Johnson|title=Letters to the Editor: Turn Prisons Into Think Tanks|work=Wall Street Journal|date=June 18, 1991|page=15}}</ref> He also says that a meta-analyses of studies on TM and anxiety found that those studies done by researchers with no connection to TM showed a slightly larger effect than those studies by researchers who had a connection.<ref name="Orme-Johnson DW 2008 1215–21" /> According to TM researchers, studies on Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health have been conducted at over 200 different research institutions and universities in over 30 countries worldwide.<ref name="Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI 2006 S4–15–26">{{Cite journal|author=Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI |title=Cardiovascular disease prevention and health promotion with the transcendental meditation program and Maharishi consciousness-based health care |journal=Ethnicity & Disease |volume=16 |issue=3 Suppl 4 |pages=S4–15–26 |year=2006 |pmid=16938913 |pmc=2267926 |ref=harv}}</ref> American University professor David Haaga, who has collaborated with TM researchers on six studies published 2009-2011<ref>Studies coauthored by David Haaga include: 
Fred Travis, David A. F. Haaga, et al, “A self-referential default brain state: patterns of coherence, power, and eLORETA sources during eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation practice,” COGNITIVE PROCESSING Volume 11, Number 1, 21-30, 2010 Fred Travis, David A.F. Haaga, et al, “Effects of Transcendental Meditation practice on brain functioning and stress reactivity in college students,” International Journal of Psychophysiology Volume 71, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 170-176 
Sanford I. Nidich , Maxwell V. Rainforth , David A.F. Haaga, et al, "A Randomized Controlled Trial on Effects of the Transcendental Meditation Program on Blood Pressure, Psychological Distress, and Coping in Young Adults," American Journal of Hypertension 22, 1326–1331 (1 December 2009) Travis Fred, Haaga, David A. F., et al, “A self-referential default brain state: patterns of coherence, power, and eLORETA sources during eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation practice,” Cognitive processing 2010, vol. 11, no1, pp. 21-30 Melissa A. Tanner, Fred Travis, Carolyn Gaylord-King, David A. F. Haaga, et al, “The Effects of the transcendental meditation program on mindfulness,” Journal of Clinical Psychology, Special Issue: Mindfulness, Volume 65, Issue 6, pages 574–589, June 2009 David A.F. Haaga, et al, "Effects of the Transcendental Meditation Program on Substance Use among University Students," Cardiology Research and Practice, vol. 2011, no. 537101, pages1-8</ref> and who is "not committed to a favorable or unfavorable view of its effects," says that such collaboration helps to "ensure that procedures to minimize bias are always given highest priority in the conduct of the research."<ref>{{cite journal | first=David | last=Haaga | title=A Timely Reminder on Research Design and Interpretation | journal=Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice | volume= 15 | issue=1 | pages=66–68}}</ref>

==Recent research==
In 2011, the editors of ''[[Archives of Internal Medicine]]'' decided to withhold publication of a paper on a nine-year study of TM and mortality minutes before it was to be published online. The decision, characterized as "unprecedented" by ''[[The Scientist]]'', followed communication with lead author, Robert Schneider, and was done to allow the review of new data that was obtained subsequent to the submission of the original manuscript. Schneider, head of the Maharishi University of Management's Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention, said the authors were happy to have the additional time to review the input of new data and to make any necessary revisions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://the-scientist.com/2011/07/08/study-pulled-minutes-before-publication|title=Study Pulled Minutes Before Publication|first=Jessica P. |last=Johnson | date=July 8, 2011|work=The Scientist}}</ref>

==Research funding and promotion==
In 1991, The [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] (JAMA) published an article on Maharishi Ayurveda of which the Transcendental Meditation technique is a part.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sharma HM, Triguna BD, Chopra D |title=Maharishi Ayur-Veda: modern insights into ancient medicine |journal=JAMA |volume=265 |issue=20 |pages=2633–4, 2637 |year=1991 |pmid=1817464 |doi= 10.1001/jama.265.20.2633|url=}}</ref> Later, allegations were made saying that the authors [[Deepak Chopra]], [[Hari M. Sharma]], and [[Brihaspati Dev Triguna]] had failed to disclose that they were "involved in organizations that promote and sell the products and services about which they wrote."<ref name="JAMA91">{{cite journal |author=Skolnick AA |title=Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's marketing scheme promises the world eternal 'perfect health' |journal=JAMA |volume=266 |issue=13 |pages=1741–2, 1744–5, 1749–50 |year=1991 |month=October |pmid=1817475 |doi= 10.1001/jama.266.13.1741|url=}}</ref>

In 1999, the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vedic Medicine, Meditation Receive Federal Funds|publisher=U.S. Medicine|first=Matt|last=Pueschel|date=July 2000|accessdate=February 8, 2010|url=http://www.usmedicine.com/article.cfm?articleID=47&issueID=12|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070928030213/http://www.usmedicine.com/article.cfm?articleID=47&issueID=12|archivedate=2007-09-28}}</ref> According to the MUM website, the research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention (INMP), was inaugurated on October 11, 1999, at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in [[Fairfield, Iowa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5rcNs3y5o|title=NIH Awards $8 Million Grant to Establish Research Center on Natural Medicine|publisher=MUM.edu|accessdate=July 30, 2010}}</ref> By 2004, the U.S. government had awarded more than $20 million to Maharishi University of Management to fund research.<ref name="QUICK"/>

In 2009, the [[National Institutes of Health]] awarded an additional grant of $1 million distributed over two years for research on the use of TM in the treatment of coronary heart disease in African-Americans. The award was for research in collaboration with the INMP and [[Columbia University Medical Center]] in New York City. The award was from the [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009]] via the [[National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute]].<ref name=heartland>{{cite web|url=http://www.heartlandconnection.com/news/story.aspx?id=355188 |title=MUM gets $1 million research grant : News : KTVO3 |publisher=Heartlandconnection.com |date=2009-09-25 |accessdate=2009-11-15}}</ref>

According to a 1980 article by sociologist Hank Johnston, the movement's two main universities, [[Maharishi International University]] (now Maharishi University of Management) and [[Maharishi European Research University]], have been significant sources of the studies used in promotional materials.<ref name="Johnston">{{cite journal|title=The Marketed Social Movement: A Case Study of the Rapid Growth of TM|first=Hank |last=Johnston|work=The Pacific Sociological Review|volume=23|issue=3|date= July 1980|journal=The Pacific Sociological Review|pages=333–354 |publisher=University of California Press|jstor=1388826}}</ref> Leading individuals and organizations associated with TM cite the existence of many studies, "more than 600 published research studies, conducted at over 200 independent research institutions in 33 countries",<ref>{{Cite news|title='Maharishi Invincible Towers to be set up in 192 countries'|work=The Hindustan Times|location=New Delhi|date=February 10, 2008}}</ref> to support TM-related concepts.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Town sees meditation as way to peace|first=Julie|last=Deardorff|work=The Charleston Gazette|location=Charleston, W.V.|date=December 12, 2001|page=2.D}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wasting away in Maharishi-ville|first=Brian|last=Hutchinson|work=National Post|location=Don Mills, Ont.|date=February 22, 2003|page=B.1}}</ref> The quantity of studies has been cited to support the political programs of the [[Natural Law Party]],<ref>{{Cite news|title=Is government ready for a dose of TM?|first=George|last=Plagenz|work=The Nevada Daily Mail|date=September 4, 1996|page=3|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Z_swAAAAIBAJ&sjid=2N8FAAAAIBAJ&pg=5223,3578592}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=PARTY HOPES TM PUTS MEMBERS IN POSITION TO LEAD|first=Darrel|last=Rowland|work=Columbus Dispatch|location=Columbus, Ohio|date=July 21, 1996|page=01.C}}</ref> the tax status of a TM property,<ref>STATE OF MINNESOTA IN SUPREME COURT C4-96-1425 World Plan Executive Council-United States, et al., v. County of Ramsey, Filed March 20, 1997</ref> the use of TM to rehabilitate prisoners,<ref>Walpole Study of the Transcendental Meditation Program in Maximum Security Prisoners: Cross-Sectional Differences in Development and Psychopathology. Charles N. Alexander; Kenneth G. Walton; Rachel S. Goodman in Transcendental Meditation in Criminal Rehabilitation and Crime Prevention. Charles Nathaniel Alexander, Kenneth G Walton, David Orme-Johnson Routledge, 2003 ISBN 9780789020376 p. 159</ref> the teaching of TM in schools,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Meditation Controversy|work=The Journal News|date=May 18, 2004|first=Joy|last=Victory}}</ref> the issuance of bonds to finance the movement,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maharishiglobalfinancing.org/PDF/Prospectus%20Nov14%202006.pdf|title=Propectus for the issue and offering of three million RAAM|date=November 14, 2006|publisher=Stichting Maharishi Global Financing Research|accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> as proof that TM is a science rather than a religion,<ref>{{Cite news|title=VEDA LAND The New Incarnation of the Maharishi REJECTION BY THE VOTERS ONLY SERVES TO MAKE THE NATURAL LAW PARTY'S APPEALS MORE URGENT, ITS PLANS MORE GRANDIOSE, ITS CLAIMS MORE STRIDENT|first=JACK|last=KAPICA|work=The Globe and Mail|location=Toronto, Ont.|date=November 27, 1993|page=D.3}}</ref> to show the efficacy of the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health,<ref name="Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI 2006 S4–15–26" /> and as a reason to practice TM itself.<ref>{{cite web|title=Q&A with John Hagelin, 8 Great Reasons to Meditate|publisher=Center for Leadership Performance|year=2009|accessdate=June 2, 2010|url=http://www.maharishiacademy.org/pdf/brochure_tm.pdf}}</ref>

Philip Goldberg, in his 2010 book, ''American Veda'', said some of the experts he spoke with accused TM advocates of using research findings to proselytize. David Orme-Johnson, who directed the TM research program for many years, responded that "enthusiasm for your data does not make your data wrong."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldberg|first=Philip|year=2010|title=American Veda—How Indian Spirituality Changed the West|page= 379 n9|publisher=Crown/Random House|location= New York|isbn=978-0-385-52134-5|quote=Most of the experts I spoke to said that the bulk of the TM studies in peer-reviewed journals—now numbering more than 600—rise to professional standards. Some expressed concern about the way TM proponents have interpreted the findings, accusing them of proselytizing. Psychologist David Orme-Johnson, who headed up the TM research program for many years and is now a semiretired spokesman, responds that "enthusiasm for your data does not make your data wrong."}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Research on meditation]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading ==
* {{Cite book| first=Tamar| last=Gablinger | year=2010 | title=The Religious Melting Point: On Tolerance, Controversial Religions and the State : The Example of Transcendental Meditation in Germany, Israel and the United States | chapter= | editor= | others=Language: English | pages=354 pages | publisher=Tectum| isbn=3828825060 | url= | authorlink= | ref=harv | postscript= }}
* {{Cite book| first=Michael| last=Persinger | year=1980 | title=[[TM and Cult Mania]] | chapter= | editor= | others=Language: English | pages=198 pages | publisher=Christopher Pub House| isbn=0815803923 | url= | authorlink= | ref=harv | postscript= }}
* {{Cite book| first=Mikael| last=Rothstein | author-link=Mikael Rothstein |year=1996 | title=Belief Transformations: Some Aspects of the Relation Between Science and Religion in Transcendental Meditation (Tm) and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness | chapter= | editor= | others=Language: English | pages=227 pages | publisher=Aarhus universitetsforlag| isbn=8772884215 | url= | authorlink= | ref=harv | postscript= }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Transcendental Meditation Technique}}
[[Category:Transcendental Meditation movement]]
[[Category:Meditation]]

[[nl:Transcendente Meditatie wetenschappelijk onderzoek]]

Encyclopedia

2011-07-30T17:59:33Z

Transfreedom: Created page with "An '''encyclopedia''' is a collection of knowledge. Often, in an encyclopedia, there is an article related to events, things, social facts, social phenomenon, science topics, and..."

An '''encyclopedia''' is a collection of knowledge. Often, in an encyclopedia, there is an article related to events, things, social facts, social phenomenon, science topics, and so forth. Encyclopedias can cover a large array of knowledge.

==Print==
* Encyclopedia Americana
* Encyclopaedia Britannica

==Online==
* Encarta
* Encyc
* Epistemia
* MyWikiBiz
* Wikinfo
* Wikipedia
* Wikisage
* NaturalPedia
* Citizendium

List of game materials

2011-02-25T00:49:48Z

Guido den Broeder: +

* Ball
* Basket
* Board
* Counter
* Die
* Flag
* Game clock
* Goal
* Hoop
* Marble
* Mascotte
* Net
* Pawn
* Pen and paper
* Piece
* [[Playing card]]
* Stick
* Stone
* Tile
* Token

[[Category:Game]]

Marang House

2011-01-16T15:45:19Z

Guido den Broeder: cats

'''Marang House''' (''marang'': ray of the sun, [[Setswana]]) is a privately-run non-profit [[medical center]] located in [[Northcliff]], a [[suburb]] of [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]]. It was founded in [[1998]] by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[physician]] Pieter Ernst. The center was continued by Ernst's son, Pieter Ernst jr., after Ernst was [[murder]]ed at his family [[farm]] on [[29 July]] [[2005]].<ref>Censorbugbear, "Dutch doctor/philanthropist Pieter Ernst murderers get 20 years prison", 18 July 2009, [http://censorbugbear-reports.blogspot.com/2009/07/dutch-doctorphilanthropist-pieter-ernst.html 20110116]</ref>

==Mission==
Ernst had peviously been working in [[government]] [[hospital]]s after his emigration to South Africa in [[1989]]. There, he noticed that many [[child]]ren became institutionalised in these hospitals, lacking a proper home environment. The purpose of Marang House is to provide these children with a proper home as well as around-the-clock medical care.

Marang House accepts seriously ill children from hospitals in and around Johannesburg and [[Soweto]].

==External links==
* [http://maranghouse.org Marang House official website]
* [http://www.youtube.com/user/pieterbe Marang House op Youtube]

{{refs}}

[[Category:Charity in South Africa]][[Category:Medical center in South Africa]]