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The '''Pali Canon''' (English) or '''Tipiṭaka''' (Pali) is the scripture collection of [[Theravada Buddhism]]. The other forms of Buddhism at the present day group themselves under the heading of Mahayana,<ref>Keown, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1996, page 11</ref> which tends to regard the Tipiṭaka as a sort of "[[Old Testament]]".<ref>''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 2002 printing, volume 11, page 791</ref>. Most scholars recognize the Canon as the oldest source for the Buddha's teachings.<ref>Schopen, ''Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks'', University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 1997, pages 23f; reprinted from ''Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik'', volume 10, 1985; also, quoted in [http://www.ocbs.org/images/stories/awynne2005wzks.pdf], page 37; Mousa, ''World Religions Demystified'', McGraw-Hill, 2014, page 35</ref>
The '''Pali Canon''' is the scripture collection of Theravada Buddhism.<ref>Gethin, ''Sayings of the Buddha'', Oxford World Classics, 2008, page xiii</ref> "Pali Canon" is the usual English name;<ref>Gombrich, foreword to Pali Text Society edition of Geiger, ''Pali Grammar''; there are typographical variants: Pali/Pāli/Pāḷi Canon/canon</ref> it is also known by the name "Tipiṭaka".<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed, 2012, page 459</ref> It is in Pali,<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', Cambridge University Press, 1st ed, 1990, page 3</ref> which is a language of ancient India.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', Cambridge University Press, 1st ed, 1990, page xx</ref> Mahayana Buddhism tends to regard the Tipiṭaka as a sort of "[[Old Testament]]"<ref>''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 2002 printing, volume 11, page 791 (article Tipitaka)</ref>. Most scholars recognize the Canon as the oldest source for the Buddha's teachings.<ref>Mousa, ''World Religions Demystified'', McGraw-Hill, 2014, page 35; Schopen, ''Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks'', University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 1997, pages 23f / reprinted from ''Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik'', volume 10 (1985), page 9 / also quoted in "The historical authenticity of early Buddhist literature: a critical evaluation", ''Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies'', Vol XLIX (2005)/[https://ocbs.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/awynne2005wzks.pdf], page 37</ref>


The English name comes from [[Pali]], its language. The commonest name in the tradition is Tipitaka (tipiṭaka), meaning "thee baskets", after the commonest arrangement of the Canon:
==Background==


#Vinaya Pitaka, on monastic discipline
The Canon is traditionally regarded by the [[Theravada]] as the Word of the Buddha (died around 400 BC<ref>consensus of scholars: Gethin, ''Sayings of the Buddha'', Oxford World Classics, 2008, page xv</ref>), though not always literally.<ref>Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism'', Routledge, London, 1st edn, 1988 / 2nd edn, 2006, page 20</ref>  It is said in the Canon itself that whatever is well said is the Word of the Buddha.<ref>[https://suttacentral.net/an8.8/en/sujato?lang=en&layout=plain&reference=none&notes=asterisk&highlight=false&script=latin]; [https://suttacentral.net/an8.8/en/bodhi?lang=en&reference=none&highlight=false] / ''The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha'', Wisdom Publications / Pali Text Society, page 1120; ''Gradual Sayings'', Pali Text Society, volume IV, page 112</ref> Modern scholars tend to regard at least large amounts of the Canon (with disagreements on how much) as the work of a number of unknown authors ([http://www.academia.edu/15576817/Understanding_Early_Buddhist_Terminology_in_Its_Context]).
#Sutta or Suttanta Pitaka, discourses
#Abhidhamma Pitaka, higher or special teaching, more formal and analytical than the discourses


The Sutta Pitaka is in turn divided into five nikayas (nikāya). The first four of these are in a fairly uniform style, mainly prose. The fifth, the Khuddaka Nikaya, is a miscellaneous collection of books in prose and/or verse.
According to a tradition generally regarded quite favourably by scholars, the Canon was written down from oral tradition in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the last century BC,<ref>Gethin, ''Buddhist Path to Awakening'', Brill, Leiden / New York / Köln, 1992, page 8</ref> though hardly any manuscripts survive form before the 16th century.<ref>Oberlies, ''Pali Grammar'', volume I, Pali Text Society, 2019, page 7</ref>


==Authorship and date==
Collected printed editions of the Canon have been appearing since about 1893,<ref>Bechert & Gombrich, ''World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; see also Wiles et al in ''Journal of the Pali Text Society'', volume XXXIV, [https://palitextsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/JPTS_2021_34.pdf]</ref> and digitized versions since 1988.<ref>''Routledge Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 288</ref> It is now even available on an app.


*The Canon is traditionally regarded as "The Word of the Buddha" (Buddhavacana),<ref>Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism'', Routledge, 2nd edition, 2006, page 20</ref> compiled by a council shortly after his death,<ref>''Theravada Buddhism'', Routledge, London, 2nd edition, 2006, page 128</ref> which the tradition dates around 544 BC.<ref>[http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha133.htm] says 544; [http://indology.info/papers/cousins/] says 543; Hinüber, ''Handbook of Pali Literature'', de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 4, says the 2500th anniversary was celebrated in 1956, implying a date of 545 (remembering there is no year 0 between 1 BC and 1 AD)</ref>
The vast majority of commentarial literature is connected with just four names: Buddhaghosa, Dhammapala, Sariputta and Nanakitti.<ref>[https://palitextsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/JPTS_2000_XXVI.pdf ''Journal of the Pali Text Society'', volume XXVI], page 134</ref>
*Professor von Hinüber calls the Canon "anonymous".<ref>''Handbook of Pali Literature'', de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 24</ref>
*According to Professor Norman, the earliest material in the Canon may be pre-Buddhist.<ref>''Collected Papers'', volume II, Pali Text Society, page 193; reprinted from ''Indologica Taurinensia'', volume VII, page 330</ref>
*According to Professor Holder ([http://www.hackettpublishing.com/pdfs/Timeline_of_Early_Buddhism.pdf]), the Canon reached its present form by about 250 BC; Professor Gombrich says only that it was much like it by then.<ref>''Theravada Buddhism'', Routledge, London, 2nd edition, 2006, page 129</ref>
*Some scholars claim that little or nothing has been added since the Canon was written down from oral tradition in the last century BC.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition, 2013, page 3; Norman in ''Buddhist Heritage'', ed Skorupski, 1989, page 40/''Collected Papers'', Pali Text Society, volume IV, page 107</ref>
*The late Professor Nakamura says the Canon cannot have been composed earlier than the 2nd century AD.<ref>''Indian Buddhism'', Kansai University of Foreign Studies, Hirakata, Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1987, 1989, page 48</ref>
*Professor Samuel says the Canon largely derives from the work of Buddhaghosa and his colleagues in the 5th century AD.<ref>''Introducing Tibetan Buddhism'', Routledge, 2012, page 48</ref>
*In addition to the above (apparently) straightforward positions on the Canon as a whole, many scholars have presented more complicated accounts, or statements about parts of the Canon.


==Text==
==Table of contents==


The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in [[inscription|inscriptions]], the oldest known [[manuscript]] is a two-page fragment from the 8th or 9th century found in [[Nepal]], and there are few from before the 18th century. Thus the manuscripts available are the result of multiple copying, with the inevitable errors accumulated. This is compounded by transcription between alphabets, as Pali has none of its own, each country generally using its own. Manuscripts tend to follow different national recensions, though with some interaction. The same applies to the printed editions of the Canon: these have been published in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Sri Lanka, but not yet in Laos. The Burmese edition is nominally the "official" edition for the whole of the Theravada, having been approved by the sixth ecumenical council of the Theravada, representing all five Theravada countries. The Council, however, was dominated by Burmese monks, and the other countries tend to pay only lip-service to it, though the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand did sponsor a transcript of its edition in 2005. Modern scholars try to compare these editions, which is made easier by the existence of electronic transcripts, except for the Khmer edition, of which few copies survived the Khmers Rouges.
English titles are taken from the Pali Text Society: titles of translations published by them, except for 2 books they haven't yet translated (at least 1 volume of).


==Outline of contents==
*Vinaya Pitaka (Book of the discipline)
*Sutta or Suttanta Pitaka
**Digha Nikaya (Dialogues of the Buddha)
**Majjhima Nikaya (Middle length discourses of the Buddha)
**Samyutta Nikaya (Connected discourses of the Buddha)
**Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical discourses of the Buddha)
**Khuddaka Nikaya: the contents of this section vary between editions, with some including all the following but others omitting one or more ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120820132850/http://society.worldtipitaka.info/world-tipitaka-project/world-tipitaka-roman-script/comparative-tipitaka-volumes]). Opinions on canonicity seem to vary even within the same country: for example, one Burmese teacher<ref>Sayadaw Nandamāla, [https://nandamala.org/netti/#more-51824 ''Introduction to Nettipakaraṇa''], page 5</ref> says the 6th Council included the Netti in the Pali Canon, while another<ref>Rewata Dhamma, ''The Buddha and His Disciples'', Dhamma Talaka Pubns, Birmingham, 2001, page 91</ref> describes it as post-canonical.
***Khuddakapatha (Minor readings)
***Dhammapada (Word of the doctrine)
***Udana (Verses of uplift)
***Itivuttaka (As it was said)
***Suttanipata (Group of discourses)
***Vimanavatthu (Stories of the mansions)
***Petavatthu (Stories of the departed)
***Theragatha (Poems of early Buddhist monks)
***Therigatha (Poems of early Buddhist nuns)
***Apadana (Legends<ref>"Illustrator of ultimate meaning" (in 1 volume with "Minor readings"), page 2; a translation of this book is available at [http://apadanatranslation.org/]</ref>)
***Buddhavamsa (Chronicle of Buddhas)
***Cariyapitaka (Basket of conduct)
***Jataka (Stories of the Buddha's former births)
***Niddesa (Exposition<ref>Bodhi, Suttanipata translation, Pali Text Society, 2017, page 18; a translation of this book is available at [https://zacanger.com/niddesa/assets/niddesa.pdf]</ref>)
****Maha Niddesa
****Culla or Cula Niddesa
***Patisambhidamagga (Path of discrimination)
***Netti (The guide)
***Petakopadesa (Piṭaka-disclosure)
***Milindapanha (Milinda's questions)
*Abhidhamma Pitaka
**Dhammasangani (A Buddhist manual of psychological ethics)
**Vibhanga (Book of analysis)
**Dhatukatha (Discourse on elements)
**Puggalapannatti (Designation of human types)
**Kathavatthu (Points of controversy)
**Yamaka (Book of pairs)
**Patthana (Conditional relations)


Arrangement varies, but the following seems commonest.
==Where next?==


*Vinayapiṭaka, on monastic discipline
* ''The Lion's Roar: an Anthology of the Buddha's Teachings Selected from the Pāḷi Canon'', David Maurice, Rider, London, 1962; American edition, Citadel, New York, 1967: online at [http://www.kbrl.gov.mm/book/download/002593], [https://www.bps.lk/olib/mi/mi023_Maurice_The-Lions-Roar.epub.pdf]; this seems to be the only anthology including selections from all three pitakas; it also represents all five nikayas, but not all the individual books listed above; this book can give some idea of what the Canon is like
**Suttavibha&#7749;ga: commentary on Pātimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns, not itself in the Canon except in so far as embedded here; the commentary includes stories of the occasions for the Buddha's laying down of the rules
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120820132850/http://society.worldtipitaka.info/world-tipitaka-project/world-tipitaka-roman-script/comparative-tipitaka-volumes Parallel volume-by-volume table of contents of a number of editions]; see [https://web.archive.org/web/20120722154929/http://society.worldtipitaka.info/world-tipitaka-project/world-tipitaka-roman-script/reference-to-pali-tipitaka-editions-in-various-scripts] for the code letters used there.
**Khandhaka: futher rules, mainly organizational, arranged topically, with stories and explanations; at the end, this book gives accounts of the first two councils
* Detailed outlines (from shortest to longest)
**Parivāra: further analysis
** ''An Analysis of the Pāli Canon'', edited by Russell Webb, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 3rd edition, 2008; online at [https://www.bps.lk/library-search-select.php?id=bp607s]; includes extensive bibliography
*Sutta- or Suttanta-piṭaka, discourses: divided into five nikayas (nikāya). The first four of these are in a fairly uniform style, mainly prose
** ''An Outline Of the Pāḷi Canon'', compiled from various sources by Allan R. Bomhard, Charleston Buddhist Fellowship, Charleston, SC USA, 2013 (2557), updated version 2022; online at [https://www.academia.edu/38036561/Bomhard_An_Outline_Of_the_P%C4%81li_Canon_revised_August_2022_?email_work_card=title]
**Dīghanikāya: 34 long discourses
** ''Guide to Tipiṭaka'', compiled by U Ko Lay, Burma Piṭaka Association, Rangoon, 1986; reprinted in India, Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand; now online at numerous websites, e.g. [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/tipitaka.pdf], [http://www.archive.org/details/guidetotipitaka029042mbp], [http://www.archive.org/stream/guidetotipitaka029042mbp#page/n1/mode/2up]
**Majjhimanikāya: 152 medium discourses
** ''A History of Pali Literature'' by Bimala Churn Law, originally published in 2 volumes in 1933 (Volume I on the Canon), reprinted in 1 volume, online at [http://www.academia.edu/4088767/A_History_of_Pali_Literature_by_Bimala_Churn_Law]
**Saṃyuttanikāya: thousands of short discourses arranged topically in 56 groups (saṃyuttas)
* [https://palitextsociety.org The Pali Text Society] publishes [https://palitextsociety.org/product-category/original-texts-in-pali/ Pali texts], [https://palitextsociety.org/product-category/translations/ translations], an [https://palitextsociety.org/product/introduction-to-pali/ ''Introduction to Pali''], a [https://palitextsociety.org/product/pali-english-dictionary/ ''Pali-English Dictionary''], etc.; many of these, and other, books are available online, and can be found through search engines
**A&#7749;guttaranikāya: thousands of short discourses arranged numerically, from 1s to 11s
*Complete text (in Pali)
**Khuddakanikāya: a miscellaneous collection of books in prose and/or verse; contents vary between editions, with all the following in the 6th Council edition, the last book omitted from the (Sinhalese) Buddha Jayanti edition, and the last three books omitted from a number of editions published in Thailand
**Latin script
***Khuddakapāṭha: 9 short texts in prose or verse
***[https://web.archive.org/web/20190627171205/http://www.btmar.org/content/tipitaka-del-sexto-concilio-buddhista-textos-pali ''Chaṭṭhasa&#7749;gītipiṭaka&#x1E41;''], 40 volumes, Ministry of Religious Affairs, Yangon, 2008; also commentaries and subcommentaries (commentaries on commentaries), which can be found through the Tipitaka menu near top right
***Dhammapada: popular book of 423 verses in 26 chapters, topically
***[http://web.archive.org/web/20100615203958/http://buddhistethics.org/palicanon.html Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project]; also includes many other Pali texts
***Udāna: "inspired utterances", mostly verse, with introductory narratives
***[http://suttacentral.net/ SuttaCentral]; see [https://suttacentral.wordpress.com/2014/05/08/suttacentral-upgrade-2014/], [https://web.archive.org/web/20120820133726/http://society.worldtipitaka.info/world-tipitaka-project/the-project/introduction] for background on this; also includes early Buddhist literature in other languages, and many translations into English and other languages
***Itivuttaka: prose pieces followed by verse paraphrases or supplements
***[http://www.tipitaka.org Vipassana Research Institute], Igatpuri, India; also includes commentaries, subcommentaries and other Pali texts; various formats, including app
***Suttanipāta: basically poetry, but sometimes with prose frames
**scripts used in Theravada countries
***Vimānavatthu: verse descriptions of heavenly "mansions" and the karma leading to them
***[https://www.pali-text-images.net/ Anandajoti]: more than one edition
***Petavatthu: an obverse, sufferings of ghosts and the karma leading to them
***[https://web.archive.org/web/20120606015925/http://dhamma4khmer2.org/Tipitaka_Reading_1.html ''Braḥ Traipiṭakapāḷi''], 110 volumes, Phnom Penh, 1931-1969; includes Khmer translations on right-hand pages
***Theragāthā: verses ascribed to senior monks
***[http://www.aathaapi.net/tipitaka/ ''Buddha Jayanti Tripitaka''], 52 volumes [in 58], published under the patronage of the government of Ceylon / Sri Lanka, 1957-1989; includes Sinhalese translations on right-hand pages
***Therīgāthā: similar for nuns
***[http://www.kbrl.gov.mm/catalog/Index/39?page=32 Kabaaye Buddha Research Library] (click on Eng to get the page in English instead of Burmese); also includes many other books in Pali, Burmese, and English
***Jātaka: 547 poems understood as referring to previous lives of the Buddha
**watch  this space:
***Niddesa: commentary on parts of Suttanipāta, traditionally ascribed to the Buddha's disciple Sāriputta
***[http://www.budsir.org BUDSIR (BUDdhist Studies Information Retrieval)] has carried an under construction notice for years; supposed to have a Thai edition
***Paṭisambhidāmagga: 30 treatises on various topics, also ascribed to him
***[https://palitextsociety.org/non-pts-editions-of-pali-texts/ King Chulalongkorn Edition 1893] links to scans of most volumes of a Siamese edition of the Canon; maybe the others will be added sometime
***Apadāna: about 600 poems, mostly in the names of monks or nuns telling how meritorious deeds in past lives led to good karmic results and eventual nirvana
***[https://opencontext.org/projects/b6de18c6-bba8-4b53-9d9e-3eea4b794268 Kuthodaw Pagoda Project]
***Buddhavaṃsa: verse book mainly on previous Buddhas and "our" Buddha's meritorious acts towards them in his past lives
***Cariyāpiṭaka: more Jātaka-type verse
***Netti(ppakaraṇa): treatise on methods of interpretation, in the name of the Buddha's disciple Kaccāna
***Peṭakopadesa: similar and overlapping
***Milindapañha: dialogue between King Menander of Bactria ( c. 150 BC) and a monk called Nāgasena
*Abhidhammapiṭaka, higher or special teaching, more formal and analytical than the discourses
**Dhammasa&#7749;gaṇi: enumeration and classifcation of mental and physical phenomena
**Vibha&#7749;ga: analysis of various topics using, among other things, ideas and material from the previous book
**Dhātukathā: analysis of interrelations among various ideas, mostly from the previous two books
**Pugalapaññatti: classifications of persons
**Kathāvatthu: debates on doctrinal points
**Yamaka: converse pairs of questions, with answers
**Paṭṭhāna: analysis of 24 types of cuasal conditionality
 
==Role==
 
In theory, the Canon is the highest authority for the teaching. In practice, its great bulk means few are familiar with it as a whole. Therefore there is a tendency to specialize. The Vinaya Pitaka mentions vinaya and sutta specialists. The Milindapanha mentions specialists in each of the five nikayas. The commentaries mention abhidhamma specialists. In modern times, those wishing to be ordained as monks in Sri Lanka have had to memorize the [[Dhammapada]]. In [[Myanmar]] one can earn the title Teacher of Religion (Dhammācariya) by passing an examination where the set texts are the first volume of each pitaka.
 
Like [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Judaism]] and [[Sikhism]], and unlike [[Christianity]] and [[Mahayana Buddhism]], Theravada emphasizes the original scriptural language. Study and recitation are usually in Pali. The Canon was composed, or evolved, for the most part orally, and is adapted to that medium, and so to memorization. There are rare cases of monks who know the whole Canon by heart, and many know substantial parts. Even lay people usually know a few short passages.
 
==Comparison==
 
Versions of the Vinaya and most of the Sutta exist in Chinese. These are inherited from other schools of ancient Indian Buddhism and differ somewhat from the Pali versions. Similarly, there is a version of the Vinaya in [[Tibetan]].
 
== External links ==
 
===Guides===
 
* ''Guide to Tipitaka'', Ko Lay; written from a traditional point of view; originally published in Burma, which has never signed any international copyright treaties, so in the public domain in the rest of the world; reprinted in India, Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand; available at many internet sites, e.g. [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/tipitaka.pdf], [http://www.archive.org/details/guidetotipitaka029042mbp],[http://www.archive.org/stream/guidetotipitaka029042mbp#page/n1/mode/2up], [http://www.wisdomlib.org/buddhism/book/guide-to-tipitaka/d/doc3409.html]
* ''Analysis of the Pali Canon'', Russell Webb, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka; [http://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh217-u.html]; another "inside" view, but from the modernist wing of the Theravada; includes extensive bibliography
* ''History of Pali Literature'', B. C. Law, volume I; [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/reader.pl?call=35453]; a more academic point of view, but old
 
===Ongoing wiki translation projects===
 
* [http://tipitaka.pbworks.com/w/page/22282156/FrontPage TipitakaWiki]; based on the (Sinhalese) Buddha Jayanti edition
* [http://wipitaka.org/index.php?title=Main_Page WiPitaka], sponsored by the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies; based on the 6th Council edition
* [http://tipitaka.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page Wikipitaka]
 
===[[Pali Text Society]]===
 
* [http://www.palitext.com/ The Pali Text Society] publishes Pali texts (including the Canon), translations (including most of the Canon), an ''Introduction to Pali'', a ''Pali-English Dictionary'', etc.
* [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ Online Pali-English Dictionary]
 
===Full text (in Pali)===
 
*[[Sixth Buddhist Council]]'s edition
**[http://suttacentral.net/]
**[http://www.tipitaka.org]  
**[http://www.btmar.org/content/tipitaka-del-sexto-concilio-buddhista-textos-pali pdfs of a Latin-script printing]
*Buddhajayanti edition (Ceylon/Sri Lanka)
**images: [http://www.sri-lankan-pali-texts.net/]
**unproofread transcript: [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/#Tipit], [http://web.archive.org/web/20100615203958/http://buddhistethics.org/palicanon.html]
*transcript of a Thai edition: CD-ROM available from [http://www.budsir.org/order.htm BUDSIR (BUDdhist Studies Information Retrieval), Mahidol University, Thailand]; it is also supposed to be available online at [http://budsir.mahidol.ac.th/], with options for Latin, Thai, Sinhalese and devanagari scripts, but there seem to be problems with accessing this site
 
===Miscellaneous===
 
*[https://sites.google.com/a/worldtipitaka.info/society/world-tipitaka-project/world-tipitaka-roman-script/comparative-tipitaka-volumes Parallel volume-by-volume table of contents of a number of editions]; see [https://sites.google.com/a/worldtipitaka.info/society/world-tipitaka-project/world-tipitaka-roman-script/reference-to-pali-tipitaka-editions-in-various-scripts] for the code letters used there.
 
== Further reading ==
 
===Anthologies===
 
Selections from all three pitakas:
 
* ''The Lion's Roar'', ed & tr David Maurice, Rider, London, 1962
 
Selections from the Vinaya and Suttanta pitakas:
 
* ''Some Sayings of the Buddha'', ed & tr F. L. Woodward, [[Oxford World Classics]], 1924
* ''The Life of Gotama the Buddha'', ed E. H. Brewster, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London, 1926
* ''Buddhist Scriptures'', ed & tr E. J. Thomas, Wisdom of the East Series, John Murray, London, 1931
* ''The Vedantic Buddhism of the Buddha'', ed & tr J. G. Jennings, pub Geoffrey Cumberlege, London, 1947
* ''The Living Thoughts of Gotama the Buddha'', ed [[Ananda K. Coomaraswamy]] & [[I.B. Horner]], Cassell, London, 1948
* ''Early Buddhist Poetry'', ed I. B. Horner, Ananda Semage, Colombo, 1963
* ''The Life of the Buddha'', ed & tr Nanamoli, [[Buddhist Publication Society]], Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1972
 
Selections from Suttanta Pitaka only:
 
* ''Buddhist Suttas'', ed & tr T. W. Rhys Davids, ''Sacred Books of the East'', volume XI, Clarendon/Oxford, 1881; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi ([http://www.mlbd.com/BookDecription.aspx?id=108]) (& ?Dover, New York)
* ''The Word of the Buddha'', ed & tr Nyanatiloka, 1935
* ''The Book of Protection'', tr Piyadassi, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1981; translation of [[paritta]]
* ''The Wings to Awakening'', ed & tr Thanissaro, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies, Barre, Massachusetts, 1996; [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/wings/index.html]
* ''In the Buddha's Words'', ed & tr Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 2005: [http://www.wisdompubs.org/book/buddhas-words]
* ''Buddhist Meditation'', ed & tr Sarah Shaw, Routledge, 2006: [http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415485685/]
* ''Early Buddhist Discourses'', ed & tr John J. Holder, Hackett, 2006: [http://www.hackettpublishing.com/buddsup]
* ''Basic Teachings of the Buddha'', ed & tr Glenn Wallis, Modern Library, New York, 2007: [http://www.randomhouse.com/book/20844/basic-teachings-of-the-buddha-by-glenn-wallis-and-buddha/9780812975239/]
* ''Sayings of the Buddha'', ed & tr Rupert Gethin, Oxford University Press, 2008: [http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/nav/i/category/academic/series/general/owc/9780192839251/R/browse+within+this+series/religion/n/4294921812.do]
 
===Books including substantial amounts about the Canon===
 
* ''Handbook of Pali Literature'', Oskar von Hinüber, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996
* ''History of Indian Buddhism'', Akira Hirakawa, volume 1, 1977, English translation University of Hawai'i
* ''Indian Buddhism'', Hajime Nakamura, Kansai University of Foreign Studies, Hirakata, Japan, 1980; reprinted Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi: [http://www.mlbd.com/BookDecription.aspx?id=809]
* ''Pali Literature'', K. R. Norman, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983
* ''Indian Buddhism'', A. K. Warder, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1st edition 1970, 2nd edition 1980, 3rd edition 2000: [http://www.mlbd.com/BookDecription.aspx?id=808]
 
* ''The Eternal Legacy: an Introduction to the Canonical Literature of Buddhism'', Sangharakshita, Tharpa Pubns, 1984; whereas the above books are academic, this is written from a Mahayana point of view


==Notes==
==Notes==


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Revision as of 10:14, 9 May 2024

The Pali Canon is the scripture collection of Theravada Buddhism.[1] "Pali Canon" is the usual English name;[2] it is also known by the name "Tipiṭaka".[3] It is in Pali,[4] which is a language of ancient India.[5] Mahayana Buddhism tends to regard the Tipiṭaka as a sort of "Old Testament"[6]. Most scholars recognize the Canon as the oldest source for the Buddha's teachings.[7]

Background

The Canon is traditionally regarded by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (died around 400 BC[8]), though not always literally.[9] It is said in the Canon itself that whatever is well said is the Word of the Buddha.[10] Modern scholars tend to regard at least large amounts of the Canon (with disagreements on how much) as the work of a number of unknown authors ([7]).

According to a tradition generally regarded quite favourably by scholars, the Canon was written down from oral tradition in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the last century BC,[11] though hardly any manuscripts survive form before the 16th century.[12]

Collected printed editions of the Canon have been appearing since about 1893,[13] and digitized versions since 1988.[14] It is now even available on an app.

The vast majority of commentarial literature is connected with just four names: Buddhaghosa, Dhammapala, Sariputta and Nanakitti.[15]

Table of contents

English titles are taken from the Pali Text Society: titles of translations published by them, except for 2 books they haven't yet translated (at least 1 volume of).

  • Vinaya Pitaka (Book of the discipline)
  • Sutta or Suttanta Pitaka
    • Digha Nikaya (Dialogues of the Buddha)
    • Majjhima Nikaya (Middle length discourses of the Buddha)
    • Samyutta Nikaya (Connected discourses of the Buddha)
    • Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical discourses of the Buddha)
    • Khuddaka Nikaya: the contents of this section vary between editions, with some including all the following but others omitting one or more ([8]). Opinions on canonicity seem to vary even within the same country: for example, one Burmese teacher[16] says the 6th Council included the Netti in the Pali Canon, while another[17] describes it as post-canonical.
      • Khuddakapatha (Minor readings)
      • Dhammapada (Word of the doctrine)
      • Udana (Verses of uplift)
      • Itivuttaka (As it was said)
      • Suttanipata (Group of discourses)
      • Vimanavatthu (Stories of the mansions)
      • Petavatthu (Stories of the departed)
      • Theragatha (Poems of early Buddhist monks)
      • Therigatha (Poems of early Buddhist nuns)
      • Apadana (Legends[18])
      • Buddhavamsa (Chronicle of Buddhas)
      • Cariyapitaka (Basket of conduct)
      • Jataka (Stories of the Buddha's former births)
      • Niddesa (Exposition[19])
        • Maha Niddesa
        • Culla or Cula Niddesa
      • Patisambhidamagga (Path of discrimination)
      • Netti (The guide)
      • Petakopadesa (Piṭaka-disclosure)
      • Milindapanha (Milinda's questions)
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka
    • Dhammasangani (A Buddhist manual of psychological ethics)
    • Vibhanga (Book of analysis)
    • Dhatukatha (Discourse on elements)
    • Puggalapannatti (Designation of human types)
    • Kathavatthu (Points of controversy)
    • Yamaka (Book of pairs)
    • Patthana (Conditional relations)

Where next?

  • The Lion's Roar: an Anthology of the Buddha's Teachings Selected from the Pāḷi Canon, David Maurice, Rider, London, 1962; American edition, Citadel, New York, 1967: online at [9], [10]; this seems to be the only anthology including selections from all three pitakas; it also represents all five nikayas, but not all the individual books listed above; this book can give some idea of what the Canon is like
  • Parallel volume-by-volume table of contents of a number of editions; see [11] for the code letters used there.
  • Detailed outlines (from shortest to longest)
    • An Analysis of the Pāli Canon, edited by Russell Webb, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 3rd edition, 2008; online at [12]; includes extensive bibliography
    • An Outline Of the Pāḷi Canon, compiled from various sources by Allan R. Bomhard, Charleston Buddhist Fellowship, Charleston, SC USA, 2013 (2557), updated version 2022; online at [13]
    • Guide to Tipiṭaka, compiled by U Ko Lay, Burma Piṭaka Association, Rangoon, 1986; reprinted in India, Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand; now online at numerous websites, e.g. [14], [15], [16]
    • A History of Pali Literature by Bimala Churn Law, originally published in 2 volumes in 1933 (Volume I on the Canon), reprinted in 1 volume, online at [17]
  • The Pali Text Society publishes Pali texts, translations, an Introduction to Pali, a Pali-English Dictionary, etc.; many of these, and other, books are available online, and can be found through search engines
  • Complete text (in Pali)

Notes

  1. ↑ Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford World Classics, 2008, page xiii
  2. ↑ Gombrich, foreword to Pali Text Society edition of Geiger, Pali Grammar; there are typographical variants: Pali/Pāli/Pāḷi Canon/canon
  3. ↑ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed, 2012, page 459
  4. ↑ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1st ed, 1990, page 3
  5. ↑ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1st ed, 1990, page xx
  6. ↑ Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2002 printing, volume 11, page 791 (article Tipitaka)
  7. ↑ Mousa, World Religions Demystified, McGraw-Hill, 2014, page 35; Schopen, Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 1997, pages 23f / reprinted from Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik, volume 10 (1985), page 9 / also quoted in "The historical authenticity of early Buddhist literature: a critical evaluation", Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies, Vol XLIX (2005)/[1], page 37
  8. ↑ consensus of scholars: Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford World Classics, 2008, page xv
  9. ↑ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, Routledge, London, 1st edn, 1988 / 2nd edn, 2006, page 20
  10. ↑ [2]; [3] / The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications / Pali Text Society, page 1120; Gradual Sayings, Pali Text Society, volume IV, page 112
  11. ↑ Gethin, Buddhist Path to Awakening, Brill, Leiden / New York / Köln, 1992, page 8
  12. ↑ Oberlies, Pali Grammar, volume I, Pali Text Society, 2019, page 7
  13. ↑ Bechert & Gombrich, World of Buddhism, Thames & Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; see also Wiles et al in Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XXXIV, [4]
  14. ↑ Routledge Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2007, page 288
  15. ↑ Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XXVI, page 134
  16. ↑ Sayadaw Nandamāla, Introduction to Nettipakaraṇa, page 5
  17. ↑ Rewata Dhamma, The Buddha and His Disciples, Dhamma Talaka Pubns, Birmingham, 2001, page 91
  18. ↑ "Illustrator of ultimate meaning" (in 1 volume with "Minor readings"), page 2; a translation of this book is available at [5]
  19. ↑ Bodhi, Suttanipata translation, Pali Text Society, 2017, page 18; a translation of this book is available at [6]
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